STUDIES Ii 
FRENCH FORESTRY 








iiilipS: 

Mil^ WW^^-;^:r■: 






> 



%.<v^' 


















>^^"^ 






' 3 N ■ ^^ 



•V ^' 



■^/- .V 



.-^ 



<■ <: 



o > 



^> .A^ 









v'vV c - 



,A >^ ''ft €^^ ^ 



s^^^^. 






V'V 



.- 5.^^ 



^ 



^ ^<^-^ :/"'" 









-^ 



.^' 


'%■ 


y 

S 



•'' ... ., > .0" 






■O -^ , X 



.V 



o ^ 



V*^^''\.^'';^-. % *-^'\\^^ 



^-/- ,s\ 












■N-J^'^ -, 



'^o 


V 








x^' 


■^^ 


%: 
^ 


*V 


-\>^ 








=-..^'' 




- 









,0 .. 



V'V 












•^\ 



.^^^ 



.# '^-T' 









"^^ 'e '^ f' -^ , 









cP 



V- - , X " ,N 






■^ ,^^■ 



.0 ^ 









^0- 



i-l^ ,. ^ * Oy- > 






>»''%. \ 



A' "^ 









'■^■J- 


<^"^- 


» 












■^- 


\ 












. ,\ 






^ 










*^\ 




'"^^ 






"o 


v^^ 


~ 




"■'•■■*; 




'^^^ 


0^ 


v^ 


•/', 










X^^ 


°<. 



^?- A\V' 

V'V 









^^x'^ 



..nV 









,^" .. ^^^, *-)nO^ ^^ 



.^... V ^ ^ .".^ •■ 



% *""v>'s--.%;^^":o^^r-/ 












.,V^^% 









■* .A 



i.'^' > ° ^_ "> ;''<:;o ' ^ ' ^ .o^'v' \L!: * . "^9. ■ .^'^^ 



X" -/, 









-*■■ ^ -^^^ ^ o!^ 

































O > 



.•-^^ 



% : ^-^ 0^ 



A 



,H 



1 ^ . \ 



^^ 



"' "--^^ cs^ .s.o 






X^' '/I 



^^' 'V. 



.0^ 






^; 



N^-n.. 









x^-n^ 






%4^ 



^^ 



.0' 






%^' 



<^ ' 



''■ -^ <^^ 



-^ 









-0' N 



•>'. 






«2ir-^ .1 v^; 









rT 



.0 



m- ^0^ :/ 






•O^ •^ , . •* <A 












\^ -7", 












..- ^ 















X^-rt. 



o-^°< 



O^ c>- 







V * r' 












/ s ^ ' " ' /, c> ,0^ ^ ^ * 




o oj 



riS t* 



73 O 

y3 ^ 

-d § 
1^ ^ 
ri a 

S S 
a "S 

" S 
S -^ 

Sac's 

.s i 

tsi 

bJD 2 

fl O 
O &■ 

a ^ 

o3 ill 

a -^ -a 

^ I § 

'S ^ ° 
a a g 
o aj a 

3-1 

a^ S S 

8 -■ " 

fe M ^ 
^ a o 

bt>S CD 

a CO -I-' 

O a; ^ 

-£: a tH 

a -S S 
•S ^ ^ 
I: o c 

o a .2 

S S '^ 

J I 2 
a oi cc 

>> o 



'3 b a 
> g § 

2 a 



STUDIES IN 
FRENCH FORESTRY 



BY 

THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr. 

Consulting Forester, Author of French Forests and Forestry {Tunisia, Algeria. 

Corsica), and Executive Member Interallied War Timber 

Committee, Paris, 1917-1919 



WITH TWO CHAPTERS BY 

WILLIAM B. GREELEY 

Forester, U. S. Forest Service, andformerbj Chief, Forestry Section, 
C. and F., S. O. S., American Expeditionary Forces 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1920 




^ (p 



Copyright, 1920, 

BY 

THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr. 



V: 



/ 



ATLANTIC PRINTING COMPANY 
CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U. S. A. 

DEC 27 iy20 
0CI.A6O47O9 



TO 
R. P. W. 



PREFACE 

The material for this book was collected largely in 1912. Adminis- 
trative work in the United States Forest Service, teaching at Yale Forest 
School, and service in the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., during the war 
prevented an earlier completion of my task. 

The success of the American Expeditionary Forces in securing its 
timber supply, under conditions existing in France in 1917-18, was due 
chiefly to the extraordinary capacity of the commanding officers at Tours 
and the American lumbermen and foresters who assisted them through- 
out France. These efforts might have failed, however, if the American 
E. F. had not been so ably seconded by I'Administration Generale des 
Eaux et Forets under the direction of M. Dabat, Conseiller d'Etat, 
Directeur, and by M. Antoni, now an Inspecteur General des Eaux et 
Forets and Sous-Directeur, as well as by the French officers and officials 
working under or in collaboration with General de Division Chevalier, 
D. S. M., Inspecteur General du Service des Bois, notably: 

Lieut.-Col. Joubaire, Armand, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a 
Saumur, President de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

M. Emery, Auguste, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets, Ministere de 
r Agriculture, Paris. 

Lieut.-Col. de Lapasse, Louis, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a 
Bordeaux, Gironde. 

Lieut.-Col. Buffault, Pierre, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets, a 
Aurillac, Cantal. 

Lieut.-Col. Deroye, Nancy, Meurthe et Moselle, Chef du Service For- 
estier d'Armee. 

Lieut.-Col. Mathey, Alphonse, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a 
Dijon, Cote d'Or. 

Lieut.-Col. Schlumberger, Pierre, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a 
Colmar, Alsace. 

Commandant Badre, Louis, D. S. M., Inspecteur des Eaux et Forets, 
Liaison Officier Americain, G. H. Q. 

Commandant Jagerschmidt, Jean, Inspecteur des Eaux et Forets, 
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

Colonel Steiner, Directeur des Etapes, Service Forestier, a Vesoul et 
Valleroy. 

Capitaine Sinturel, fimile, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets, 
Chef du Secteur Forestier de Gray, Haute-Saone. 



Vi PREFACE 

Capitaine Fresson, Maurice, Officier de Liaison aupres du Delegue 
Americain au Comite Interallie des Bois de Guerre. 

Capitaine Vantroys, Henri, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets, 
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

Capitaine Oudin, Auguste, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets, 
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

Capitaine Roux, Edgar, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets, Ad- 
joint a M. le General Chevalier. 

Capitaine Rive, Andre, Garde General des Eaux et Forets, Membre de 
la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

Capitaine Hurteau, Henri, Garde General des Eaux et Forets, Membre 
de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

Capitaine Coulon, Jean Pierre, Membre du Bureau de la Centre des 
Bois de Bordeaux. 

Lieutenant Girault, Pierre, Garde General des Eaux et Forets, 
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises. 

Lieutenant Sebastien, Maurice, French Delegue, C. I. B. G. 

Lieutenant Detre, Leon, Adjoint au Bureau du Delegue Americain au 
Comite Interallie des Bois de Guerre. 

Capitaine Fresson and Lieutenant Detre labored assiduously in my 
own office on the Executive Committee of the Interallied War Timber 
Committee. Lieut.-Col. Parde and Commandant Hickel gave much per- 
sonal help, and Commandant Hirsch, Director of the Bureau des Vege- 
teaux Combustibles under the Ministre de I'Armement, assisted in the 
purchase of manufactured cordwood. 

The local French officers in charge of forests and conservations at all 
American operations everywhere in France gave the utmost help. 

During this allied campaign cooperation was the key to final victory. 
To General Lord Lovat, K. T., K. C. V. O , K. C. M. G,, C. B., D. S. 0.. 
Director of Forestry of the British Expeditionary Forces; Colonel John 
Sutherland, C. B. E., Assistant Director of Forestry and British Repre- 
sentative on the C. I. B. G.; Major Viscount de Vesci, who served on the 
C. I. B. G. after the armistice; General MacDougall, C. B., Chief of the 
Canadian Forestry Corps; General White, C. M. G., in charge of C. F. C. 
operations in France; Lieut.-Col. Lyle, the Canadian member of the 
C. I. B. G.; and to Commandant Parlongue, Belgian delegate to the 
C. I. B. G., thanks are due for hearty cooperation and assistance in a 
campaign for timber supplies which overshadowed for the time being the 
management and preservation of French forests. To those who worked 
in the World War this spirit of cooperation has left the pleasantest of 
memories. Many whose names are not given here gave freely to help 
the American E. F. As a matter of fact these very efforts, which helped 
to gain the victory for the allied cause, were detrimental to the forests of 



PREFACE Vll 

France. Many forests were clear cut with no satisfactory provision for 
regeneration, and in others the growing stock of sawlog material was so 
reduced that " normal" production cannot be secured for a century or more. 
Yet, it must be recognized that this destructive use of the French forests 
helped to save France and her armies. It is for this reason that it seems 
fitting to make this acknowledgment to those who cooperated in direct- 
ing and facilitating the American manufacture of French timber and the 
acquisition of the raw supplies. 

THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr. 
January 1, 1920. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface v 

Introduction xiii 

CHAPTER I 

Impressions of French forestry 1 

Economic needs and national traits 1 

Significant public phases of French forestry 2 

Forest and land conservation 6 

Private forestry in France 12 

Forest problems of France and the United States 15 

CHAPTER II 

The role of forests 17 

The value of forests 17 

Forest influences 19 

CHAPTER III 

Forest regions and important species 25 

Physical and climatic features — industry 25 

Forest regions 29 

Important forest species 40 

CHAPTER IV 

Forest statistical data 45 

Private forest owners 45 

CHAPTER V 

Natural regeneration 65 

French policy 65 

French silvicultural methods 70 

High forest systems 71 

Coppice systems 92 

Care of the stand after regeneration 105 

CHAPTER VI 

Artificial reforestation 114 

French policy 114 

Seed 117 

Nurseries 122 

Planting 125 

Field sowing 132 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VII 

Control of erosion in the mountains 140 

French policy and summary of reforestation 140 

The dama<i;e 147 

Corrective measures 153 

Typical reforestation areas 168 

CHAPTER Vni 

Forestry in the Landes 169 

The dunes 169 

History of reclaiming the Landes 173 

Fixing the sand 177 

Management of maritime pine forests 186 

CHAPTER IX 

Government regulation and working plans 206 

Mensuration in working plans 206 

Regulation of cutting 215 

Working plans 243 

CHAPTER X 

Features of French national forest administration 261 

Brief summary of legislation 261 

Administrative organization and education 268 

Protection 275 

Betterments 290 

Sale of timber 293 

CHAPTER XI 

Private forestry in France 315 

General discussion 315 

Examples of the best private forestry 323 

CHAPTER XII 

The American Forest Engineers in France 336 

Timber in modern warfare 336 

The organization of Forest Engineers 338 

The Forestry section of the Expeditionary Force 340 

Sawmills and logging equipment 343 

The production of fuel wood 347 

What the Forest Engineers accomplished 348 

Cooperation with the forest agencies of France 351 

Forest troops loaned to French and British armies 357 

What the American woodsmen learned in France 358 

The war a vindication of French forestry 358 

APPENDIXES 
AtoL 360-536 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

A valley in Alsace-Lorraine Frontispiece 

Fig. Page 

1 Rainfall and summer temperatures 26 

2 The richest silver fir (with spruce) stands in France are found in the State 

forest of La Joux (Jura) 32 

3 Larch and cembric pine in the Canton of Melezet, communal forest of Villaro- 

din-Bourget 33 

4 (a) The communal forest of Manigod (Haute-Savoie) 39 

4 (6) The communal forest of Gets 39 

5 Distribution of six important forest trees 42 

6 (a to /) State forest of Hez-Froidmont 58-59 

7 (a) Natural regeneration of spruce 85 

7 (6) Spruce stand in the Melezet Canton, communal forest of Villarodin- 

Bourget 85 

8 Pure larch in the communal forest of Tignes 90 

9 (a) Pole stand of spruce in the communal forest of Beaufort 109 

9 (&) Spruce and fir in the Canton du Mont, communal forest of Thones-Ville . . 109 

10 (a) Costly system of dams to prevent erosion in the bed of a French torrent . . 154 

10 (b) An expensive masonry dam, Gave de Pau (Hautes-Pyrenees) 154 

10 (c) Log and dry stone dams to prevent erosion at Var-Moyen (Alpes-Mari- 

times) 155 

10 (d) Wattle work on small side gullies and masonry dam in main ravine in 

Ubaye area (Basses-AIpes) 155 

11 (a) Retaining walls on a hillside that had been slipping down 159 

11 (6) Walls to prevent avalanches with an inspection trail in the foreground . . . 159 

11 (c) Walls to prevent avalanches 159 

12 Paved drains at Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees) 161 

13 (a) Wattle work in a ravine in the Verdon-Superieur (Basses-AIpes) area .... 163 

13 (6) Bed of small ravine stabilized by wattle work 163 

14 (a) The Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses-AIpes) after the reclamation work was 

finished 166 

14 (6) A mountain village in the Pyrenees menaced by erosion 166 

14 (c) Preventing further erosion by larch plantations in Ubaye area (Basses- 

AIpes) 166 

15 Protection dune at Lacanau-Ocean in State forest of Lacanau (Gironde) .... 171 

16 Barrel price of turpentine at Bordeaux 185 

17 (a) Maritime pine 57 years old during improvement felling 194 

17 (6) Small tree being tapped to death prior to utilization for mine props 194 

18 French turpentine tools 197 

19 (a and b) Examples of stand graphics 216-217 

20 (a and b) Growing stock compared with present stock and with the normal 

stand 257 

21 A graded trail, which serves as a compartment boundary, and which can be used 

by tourists 291 

xi 



INTRODUCTION 

No student can fail to see that forestry may attain its optimum de- 
velopment under the favorable climatic, regenerative, and vegetative 
conditions that exist in France. Dr. Martin, of Tharandt, remarked, 
after a tour of French forests, that "Natural regeneration is more suc- 
cessful and far more general than in Germany because of the mild cli- 
mate, sufficient rainfall, and prolific seeding." Natural regeneration of 
sessile oak in the valley of the Adour is not only certain but easily ob- 
tained; and what could be simpler than the clear cutting of maritime 
pine, followed by complete seeding? Even the high forests of peduncu- 
late oak in mixture with beech are naturally regenerated because the soil 
and seed may be made ready for regeneration by the application of forest 
science. 1 The silver-fir stands in the Vosges, Jura, Savoie, Haute-Savoie, 
and the Pyrenees regenerate naturally. Even spruce can be reproduced 
with but little artificial aid. But when Martin predicted, in 1906, that 
artificial forestation was on the increase in France, he missed the mark. 
With the shortage and high cost of labor to-day, France is further away 
from artificial regeneration than ever l^efore, except to repair the ravages 
of war and counteract the results of past improvident and excessive 
exploitation. 

The value and necessity of maintaining a conservative forest policy is 
to-day recognized in France as never before. It is generally admitted 
that the area (18.7 per cent) already in forest is insufficient. France had 
to import heavily before the war and her timber needs cannot be met 
from local sources even with the return of Alsace-Lorraine. What 
countries will furnish this timber deficit is difficult to predict. The cost 
of importing timber from the United States has been accentuated by the 
increase in steamship and railway freight rates, and by the unfavorable 
rate of exchange, since to-day it takes 10 to 11 French francs to equal one 
dollar. Even with the timber France can buy from countries with de- 
preciated currency and with the timber she should receive from Germany 
as reparation, every acre of waste land should be forested. France can- 
not afford to neglect maintaining and increasing her natural forest re- 
sources, not only for their direct returns, but also for their indirect value 

1 Soil preparation is usually obligatory, and it is often difficult to maintain the proper 
proportion of oak in the north or west of France because good oak-seed years occur only 
every 10 to 12 years. 

xiii 



XIV INTRODUCTION 

as protection against unfavorable climatic conditions, erosion, drought, 
frost, and hail, as well as providing a playground for the millions that will 
flock to France during the reconstruction period. French statesmen 
have seen France saved by her forests, and the agitation in the press 
against overcutting during the last phases of the war was merely a re- 
action from the excesses made necessary by war demands. When the 
history of the defense of France is written the part played by French 
forests should be recognized. These forests gave fuel and lumber during 
the crisis of ocean transportation, when every available ship was required 
for men, munitions, food, and other necessities which could not be wholly 
supplied from local sources. Then, too, the large forested areas in the 
line of actual fighting proved a point of defense which apparently could 
not have been spared. It is impossible to determine what would have 
occurred without the forests of Compiegne and Villers-Cotterets. Had 
France wasted her forest resources in the past (like Spain and Italy) the 
war might have been a draw or a defeat, instead of a victory. 

In the past French forests have suffered from abuse. Much of the 
damage in the Alps, Pyrenees, Central Plateau, Landes, and Gironde 
occurred during or before the Middle Ages, and a part of the damage at 
least resulted either directly or indirectly from war. The two great 
achievements of French forestry are the repair of this damage and the 
reforestation of eroded soils in the mountains as well as the reclamation 
of the sand dunes along the Gulf of Gascogne and Pas-de-Calais. The 
leaders responsible for these two achievements, Demontzey and Bremon- 
tier, will long live in the history of France. Who will successfully re- 
forest and rehabilitate the land damaged by the war of 1914? There 
are more than a million acres to be restored to productivity, as well as 
innumerable forests whose growing stocks must be enriched by economy 
at a time when the economic demands for wood products will be at least 
double the normal consumption. 

There are certain features of French forest administration and manage- 
ment that deserve emphasis: the State, Communal, and Institutional 
forests are almost invariably managed on longer rotations than are 
private forests of the same species and situation. It is evident from 
what is taught at Nancy, that, in a narrow sense, the rotations in State 
forests are clearly not financial : (1) In protection forests the trees should, 
in theory, be left standing until they decline in vigor; the product will 
then have but small value. (2) In a great country like France commerce 
requires wood of large size. To obtain this it must be cut at an advanced 
age. This leads to retaining a considerable unnecessary capital, and de- 
creases the interest returns to a figure that is too small for the private 
owner. These two considerations justify the State ownership of a 
certain number of forests, which alone can logically accept this situation 



INTRODUCTION XV 

(low returns) for the general welfare. In times of emergencies, such as 
have just passed, the wisdom of maintaining State forests as storehouses 
of heavy timber cannot be questioned. On the other hand an unneces- 
sarily long rotation means an excess growing stock, or forest capital, 
which must earn so much greater income to be profitable; besides there is 
apt to be more damage from fungi, insects, and windfall. Yet, because of 
the favorable climatic and soil conditions already emphasized, little 
silvicultural damage has resulted. The tendency in State management, 
where climate and species permit, is toward the high-forest systems and 
away from coppice and coppice-under-standards. These conversions 
also necessitate cutting less than the growth for many years, as well 
as increasing the rotation. There is always a safety valve, however, 
because, as Professor Jolyet puts it, "Prudence demands frequent inven- 
tories — repeated every ten years for example — establishing the oscilla- 
tion of standing timber volumes." This frequent stock-taking is a safe- 
guard against retaining overmature timber, because the working-plans 
officer is sure to demand its removal. But on the whole the average 
French State forester is perhaps overconservative. This has been inbred 
into him, for the French code itself prescribes that 25 per cent of the 
yield in communal forests shall be set aside for emergencies. This rule 
was due to the overcutting of two centuries ago. During the past few 
years some State forests have been cut to the extent of ten to eighteen 
annual yields and perhaps this will prove to French foresters that the 
growing stock in such forests as Risol and Levier (Jura) have been ex- 
cessive and can be reduced without danger. Private forests, chiefly 
coppice and coppice-under-standards, on the contrary, are heavily cut — 
perhaps overcut - — on short rotations, which is liable to gradually im- 
poverish the soil. The high prices prevailing since 1916 have tempted 
many private owners to dispose of their forests entirely or at least to 
make inroads on the growing stock. This was but natural when prices 
doubled in 1917 and trebled in 1918. Undoubtedly the private forests 
in France yield a higher rate of interest on the investment than do State 
forests, but the product is inferior and not so essential to French in- 
dustry. Private owners are practically unfettered in the treatment, 
management, and exploitation of their forest lands, provided the clearing 
of timber is not intended. According to the Forest Code : 

"Opposition to the clearing can only be formulated for the timber whose preserva- 
tion is recognized as being necessary — 

"1. For the maintenance of soil on mountains or slopes. 

" 2. As a protection against soil erosion and silting up of creeks, rivers, and torrents. 

" 3. For the preservation of springs and water courses. 

"4. For the protection of dunes and coasts aga,inst erosion by the sea and encroach- 
ment by sand. 

" o. As a protection of territory in that part of the frontier zone which shall be de- 
termined by regulation of the civil authorities. 

" 6. For the sake of public health." 



XVI INTRODUCTION 

Exactly the same law ^ applies to Algeria and Corsica and it is rigidly- 
enforced where large areas are to be deforested and where the public 
interest is at stake. It does not apply to — 

1. Timber sown and planted and less than 20 years old. 

2. Parks or fenced gardens. 

3. Isolated stands less than 10 hectares (24.7 acres) in extent and if 
not on mountains or slopes. But the private owner is exempt from his 
land tax for "areas sown or planted on the summits or slopes of mountains 
and upon the dunes or waste lands." 

This law against the clearing of land is fully justified by the forest his- 
tory of France. A country with only about 18.7 per cent of forested 
area cannot afford to allow further deforestation, even if unintentional. 
For this reason excessive cutting or abusive treatment which would result 
in complete destruction comes under the prohibition of this law. Who 
would advocate further deforestation of mountain land after the disasters 
of erosion in the French Alps and Pyrenees; or the deforestation of sand 
dunes after the difficulties of reparation have been driven home? The 
observance of this law against cutting strategic forests along frontiers has 
been fully justified by the war of 1914, when France was protected against 
German drives. Ample provision ^ is made for the enforcement of the 
law, and for reparation in case the law is violated, but on the other hand 
its application is liberal when it comes to clear cutting, followed by natural 
or artificial regeneration, as is the practice in the maritime-pine stands in 
the Landes. 

The art of the French forester lies in his keen perception of the true 
objective and in his simple methods. In thinnings he attacks the stand 
in its top story, to allow the development of the trees that will form the 
future commercial stand. He deals with stands rather than with trees — 
the correct viewpoint. In the regulation of yield of selection forests he 
computes the cut with an admittedly inaccurate formula, but he gets his 
desired results — a reasonably equal annual cut — and he realizes that 
with oft-repeated inventories the inaccuracies of the formula ivill be cor- 
rected. His mensuration is a rough guess, many refinements (used even 
in the United States with its extensive conditions) being omitted as un- 
necessary to the objective. If he makes an error in estimating the 
volume of a sale this slack is taken up in the bidding, and there are 
stringent laws against illegal combinations in restraint of true competi- 
tion. Timber sales are kept small so as to give the small local millman a 
chance as well as to increase competition. No logging is done by the 
State, as in Germany, except experimentally in Alsace-Lorraine. 

2 See Part VI of the Algerian Forest Code, pp. 184-188, French Forests and Forestry, 
Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
^ See Chapter X on " Legislation." 



INTRODUCTION XVU 

It is as a silviculturist that the French forester is at his best, and regu- 
lation statistics are rarely allowed to interfere with silviculture. One 
State forester was deliberately departing from his working plan because 
good silvics demanded a group-selection cutting instead of the shelter- 
wood. 

The success of the State Forest Administration is largely due to its 
splendid personnel; the Director is the only political appointee, and no 
doubt this position will soon be assumed by a technical forester with 
breadth of vision. Though woefully underpaid, even in these times, the 
morale of the service has not been broken and it is most unusual for a 
forester to retire to take a more lucrative position elsewhere. The 
authority is clearly decentralized and the Conservator (or "District 
Supervisor" as the position really is) has full authority to handle his 
district without undue interference. Given more money for a modern 
office establishment he would be able to spend more time in the forest 
with his inspectors — a needed improvement. 

One of the perplexing problems which confronts the American student 
of French forests is to understand the units of measure in common use. 
For example, a stand of 200 cubic meters, or steres per hectare, conveys 
no concrete idea to the forester accustomed to speaking in terms of board 
feet or cords per acre. To avoid this difficulty the American units of 
measure have been adopted in this study and the following equivalents 
used in conversions: 

1 pound (avoirdupois) = 0.45359 kilogram 

1 pound (Troy) = 0.37324 kilogram 

1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch 

1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 

1 meter = 3.28083 feet 

1 meter = 1.093611 yards 

1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile 

1 square millimeter = 0.00155 square inch 

1 square centimeter = 0.1550 square inch 

1 square meter = 10.764 square feet 

1 square meter = 1.196 square yards 

1 square kilometer = 0.3861 square mile 

1 hectare = 2.471 acres 

1 cubic millimeter = 0.000061 cubic inch 

1 cubic centimeter = 0.061 cubic inch 

1 cubic meter = 35.314 cul^ic feet 

1 cubic meter = 1.3079 cubic yards 

1 liter = 1.05668 quarts (liquid) 

1 hter = 0.26417 gallon (liquid) 

1 hter = 0.9081 quart (dry) 

1 liter = 0.11331 peck 

1 hectoliter = 2.83774 bushels 

1 gram = 15.4324 grains 



xviii INTRODUCTION 

1 gram = 0.03527 ounce (avoirdupois) 

1 gram = 0.03215 ounce (Troy) 

1 kilogram = 2.20462 pounds (avoirdupois) 

1 kilogram = 2.67923 pounds (Troy) 

1 franc = 19.3 cents (normal rate) 

1 stere * = 0.277 cord (3.6 steres = 1 cord) 

1 cubic meter (au reel) = 285 board feet (mfg.) 

1 cubic meter (mfg.) = 420 board feet (mfg.) 

These are exact equivalents and can be changed back to the metric 
system without error, with the exception of the board feet equivalent 
which varies with the size of the timber, method of manufacture, and 
product. A cubic meter in large logs yields more board feet than from 
small logs; a mill equipped with a band saw yields more per cubic meter 
than does a wasteful circular saw; and if logs are cut into large dimension 
stuff, or ties, the yield from a cubic meter is higher than if the product is 
inch boards. The only authoritative data on the ratio between cubic 
meters (au reel) on the stump and board feet are those secured by the 
U. S. Army during 1917-19. In the Landes where the American mills 
equipped with circular saws cut 148,585 cubic meters the product was 
41,437,304 board feet, mill tally, or 278 board feet to one cubic meter. 
The ratio varied from a minimum of 227 board feet at Sabres to 287 at 
Candale. For general calculations it may be said that 3^ to 4| cubic 
meters of standing maritime pine is equal to a thousand board feet. In 
the Jura silver-fir stands 144,203 cubic meters yielded 43,639,876 board 
feet, or 303 board feet to the cubic meter. Here the timber was larger 
than in the Landes. At one sawmill (Morteau) a cubic meter averaged 
383 board feet, at Mouthe only 311. In round figures it takes 2| to 3| 
cubic meters of silver fir to cut a thousand board feet. For general com- 
putations it would be safe to count 4 cubic meters of maritime pine or 3 
cubic meters of silver fir to the thousand board feet. In the Dijon hard- 
wood belt it was found that 319 board feet were secured from the average 
cubic meter, or 3 to the thousand. As an average converting factor for 
all saw timber logs in France 3^ cubic meters to the thousand is suggested, 
and for different sized timber, the following: 

Small timber 4Ho 1,000 board feet 

Medium timber 4 to 1,000 board feet 

Average timber 3i to 1,000 l)oard feet 

Large timber 3 to 1,000 board feet 

Very large timber 2^ to 1,000 l)oard feet 

When dealing with stands, from 10 to 40 per cent must be deducted for 
fuel. 

■" In his statistical work (Notes sur les Forets de I'Algcrie) Marc took 3 steres of fuel 
to 2 cubic meters, 50 poles to 1.30 cubic meters, ties at their full volume less 30 per cent. 
He counted 1 cubic meter as 750 kilos and 12 steres to one ton of charcoal. 



INTRODUCTION >dx 

Frequently it is of convenience to use rule-of-thumb methods for quick, 
rough calculations. With exchange at 5.18 francs to the dollar, and 
taking 420 board feet to the manufactured cubic meter, 285 board feet to 
the cubic meter of standing timber (unmanufactured) and 3.6 steres 
(stacked cubic meters) to the cord, we have: (a) To reduce francs per 
cubic meter of manufactured timber to dollars per thousand board feet, 
multiply by 0.46. (b) To reduce francs per cubic meter of standing 
timber to dollars per board foot, multiply by 0.64. (c) To reduce francs 
per stere to dollars per cord take 0.7. 

For example: 100 francs a cubic meter for boards is equal to $46 a 
thousand ; 50 francs a cubic meter of standing timber is equal to a stump- 
age rate of $37 a thousand; and 10 francs per stere is $7 a cord. It is 
obvious that these approximate ratios would vary with the rate of ex- 
change, and in case (6) to the per cent deducted for cordwood. 

Any student who has toured the forests of France must be impressed 
with the occasional difference between the theoretical forestry that is 
described in the text-books and the practical forestry one sees in the 
different regions. The writer has accordingly tried to combine the 
practice with the theory. An excellent illustration of the difference be- 
tween text-book and field forestry is found in the aleppo pine forests in 
the Provence, already alluded to. In theory these light-demanding 
coniferous stands might be managed by the shelterwood system. In 
actual practice not more than 15 to 20 per cent of the volume is removed 
in gradual selection cuttings. Yet in any study it is necessary to rely on 
text-books. Accordingly, the writer addressed the Director of the Waters 
and Forests Service at Paris in regard to the foremost standard authori- 
ties. These are: 

(1) Silviculture — Le Traite de Sylviculture de MM. Boppe et Jolyet (Berger- 
Levrault, Editeur — 5 Rue des Beaux- Arts, Paris) . 

(2) Forest Economy — (all phases of forestry) L'Economie Forestiere de M. Huffel 
— 3 Tomes. (Laveur, Editeur — 13 Rue des St. Peres, Paris.) 

(3) Forestation — Guide de Planter et Semer — D. Cannon (Laveur, Editeur). 

(4) Reboisement — Restauration et Conservation des Terrains en Montagne (Parties 
1, 2, and 3, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1911). 

(5) Forest Law — Code de Legislation Forestiere, par Puton et Guyot (Laveur, 
Editeur) . 

(6) Organization — Aide-Memoire du Forestier (Imprimerie: Jacquin, Besangon 
(Doubs)). 

An authoritative synopsis of the original working plans of some notable 
forests is contained in the Appendix. The formal statistics given in 
Chapter IV is from "Statistique des Forets de France" (Volumes 1 
and 2). 

Of necessity much of the material is borrowed from authoritative French 
sources, and no claim can be made for originality. This was impossible 



XX INTRODUCTION 

if a true picture of French forestry was to be drawn. One of the editorial 
problems was, then, to decide what should be quoted and what should be 
merely digested. Exact translations only are written with quotation 
marks. Information digested (but not in the exact words of the original 
source) is not quoted. To accurately depict the French viewpoint it was 
considered advisable in many cases to adhere quite literally to the form of 
expression used by the French author, and yet, because of the need for 
reducing the verbiage, a complete translation could not be given. Oc- 
casionally whole chapters of a French work have been condensed and 
given in tabular form, as for example Table 11. 

One of the first questions that confronts the student is which forests to 
visit. There are many communal and national forests in France under 
formal technical management and naturally the student of French 
forestry should visit those which will furnish the most instructive lessons 
typical of French forest management. Conservateur de Lapasse, now 
stationed at Bordeaux, furnished the following list of forests with relative 
data. These he thought were most worth a visit: 



INTRODUCTION 



XXl 





















-13 
C 








c 




i 

03 
C 








a 








high 
high 


i 02 

^ o3 








a 
1 




03 CC 




o3 




xn 
o3 

-a 


.2 3 Z 

Mi -a 

03 .Si S 


O 
03"- 

c > 

o c 


^ J 

03 C3 
73 _03 


a 
.2 

o 

03 


-3 o3 
3^ 

.2 ^ 1 






C C 




c 




s 


o o 


_o 


o 


o 


C 03 


"03 




03 


1 




03 03 




o; 




03 


o o 








<A 03 


03 


T" 


Ti 


-*^ 




03 02 




03 




03 


73 TS 




03 Ti 


13 


_0. 


3 


"o 




i i 




u 




L 


c e 


o 


o3 


c 


L c 


c 


"fl3 


't' 






QJ <U 




03 


fi 


03 


03 cS 


O 




o3 


03 C3 


03 


02 


03 


'^ 




"C^ 




'O 


'd 




m 


- r/" 




'O 






- 13 


o 

J3 



O f- 


0^33 

's's o g i 


c 
.2 


c 

03 


03 


-^ 0- 

03 g 


m m ri. 

03 03.2 

^ '^ S 
o o £ 


^^.2.2 
^ "S 'm 


T3 


m 
03 

O 


^ +:3 +i HJ 
~ 03 03 W 
3 03 03 03 

03 o o o 


o; 

0- 

1^ ° 


03 OJ 

03 03 

-, '-I ^ 

1? o O 


•-> ^ +j ^j 
a 03 tC 02 
a 03 03 03 
O tn tn ^ 

O o o o 




>« (L 


q; Qi^.^.a 


03 


o 


> 


O e.,-, 


^^03 


G S^ 03 






CJ e*M t^ ^--t 




03 tit. t4_ 

03 






J3 > 


> >s: a o 


, > 


'S^n 


'a^ 


JUXi > 


o3 > > 


C3X 


'a^j:i j:: 


ux. 




+fj3-3X 




bC C 


c c^aac 


a° 


a M bC bC C 


■^ C C 


->-i 


bJD a bC bC bC^O tJO O bC bC /t b£j bC bC 1 




.« c 


o o--r o o 


o 


o 




0-- 


.- ._ o 


=c o O 


03 














wooowoooo 




OK 


ffiWO 


OO 




w 


owww 


W 


MM 


WWIIh 
























03 

o 


















-3 


































A 




03 

c 


















03 
03 
















2 
















CO 


CJ 




-5 


















^.^ 


" 




^ 






^ 


<D 








r^ S rH 


o 


^ 




'o; 
















^ 03 y. 






^ 


c 


• CJ 










03 03 si -U 
03^-5 S 


03 
c3 


"3 




.23 
















03 5 4^ 
e 3 03 


0, 
0, 




03 
03 


3 

'a 


:1S 


a 








JD rtJ2 r- 


^ 


^ 




e 














~ a . 








*-. • ^ 


"o 


-cJ-= 


j:i „S „-5 


03 


+J 




„-C 


ASiJZ 


-c:-^ 




,£3 


-fi - 03 03 


0, 




S. 


- ^^ j3 





o c 


o oj o 0) "^ 


o 


o: 




03 C 


o o c 


o =- 




C 


C3 -C ., CJ 


c 




y^ 


CJ CJ C3 


'C 


<u a. 




-Jl 


03 




£ 0. 


03 03 0. 


ti 0, 




0. 


03 O 03 3 






03 03 03 


flH 


<o a 


'p 


A 




.1:: 0. 


03 03 0. 


.- 0, 




c 


03 03 ci tH 


c 






03 03 03 




-DX 


X a^^- a cj 


c 


O 




G.X 


-QXX 


JUX 




J2 


n 0) .S r- 


03 


0. 
C3 


-D-DX 




































-^-ii: 


^^ S-^-^ 


^ 


^ 




^p^ 


^-liJ-a 


-i^-li! 




-Ij 


4^ .' .-. 




■ r" 


^ri4^ 




03 o; 


03 o3 Qj o3 03 


o3 


03 




o3 o: 


o3 03 o3 


03 o: 




c: 


03.3.3.3 




.bo c« o3 o3 1 




oc 


oowoc 


o 


c 




OC 


■ OOC 


OC 




c 


OpMfefil 


fi 


f!-ia; 


COO 




o^ 


05 CTi CO t^ CC 


o 


7^ 




t- iC 


lO c c 


OC"- 




"■S 


t^O lOI^ 


CO 


oq t^ 


ci ooo 




C:iM 


lOCO OOO rf 


lo 


c 




C3l> 


CO o cc 


cot- 






CO lO CO C5 


(N 


00 l> 


00 00 lO 


d S 


^ iC 


lo oi CO t^ c^ 


^ 


cc 




co vz 


^ o — 


a>(N 




CO 


-t oooco 


o- 


coco 


05 CO Ol 


"^ is 


r-H CC 


ic o t^ 1— 1 oc 


02 t- 




o — 


CO OCO 


1— 1 CO 




(M 


00 -t< GOOC 


-^ 


Oq lO 


CO TfH CO 


^ ^ 


"^^oc 


(N C5CDCO iC 




T-H 




t^CC 


O iCt^ 


-* tC 




c 


(M LOCIOC 


t- 


l^iC 


"^ "^ C3 


ti o 










" 




















^5 


'^cc 


"•^C^Tt-TcD (M 


^ (N 




IOC 


•^ CD oc 


^ CO 




CO 


TfH LOt-H rt 


Tt- 


IM CO 


<M >OiO 


T— 1 
































































c 








03 






o: 










>3 










■T 


























C 








;- 






X 










.2 
"3 

<B 

s 

03 


a 

S 
c 




a. 
o: 


fl-;r 03 
o g fl 


d 

a 

03 

o 

c 

m 


> 

o; 


•, 


c 


o 

c 
c 




;. 




3 

1 

• ^ 

> o: 


c 
c 


c 

0. 

c 
£ 

cc 


a 
> 

O' 


' 


a 
;- 

_0. 

> 

0. 


03 ■- 
4j o; 


02 

"> 

Si 
03 C 


0. 

' 0^ 


a 
£ 
t. 

0- 
;- 


a 
> 

a 


C 

0. 

-c 

3 

F 
C 

o: 


03 0. 

§£ 

03 <0. 


t 

!. 



. a 
. c 
. b 

3 o 

J 0. 


J 




_y^ 


MwWliicc 


% 




P5^ 


P5HC 


o:n 




K 


OP^OkJ 


c 


h^h^ 


mmp- 


_ 


















^ 


i 










^ 




















03 

a 




0. 












6 

§ 




















s 






03 




w: 




X 






























1 








c 




0. 




03 
03 


























a 


03 
S3 




0. 




0. 




■5 




a 
c 


a 


or 

1 





02 

3 t 


03 

3 


03 

+2 






_0 02 




'J 
o: 




p2 


S a 




o 

< 


3 C 

-< > 




o '0 


O 02 


































. 


3 "t- 






















1— 


> 






03*0 


















^ 


> 






> 


1— 1 
1— 1 




C a 


> 




1-4 










i 


- >i 




o 

C 


03" _ 
03 cc 




II 


d 
o 

0> 


^S 




CQ 










3 C 


03 




a 


^ = 




03 C 


3 






■^ 










o ::: 




's 


2 -E 


' 


S £ 


_03 














CIh 














tf " 




e 


2 






< 


E- 






^p=; 




q: 


c 




< 


^ 


1 



xxu 



INTRODUCTION 






o 2 i 
^ > c 
~ o o 
WOO 



-^ 4^ -f^ -^ -^^ Cj 

in T/i -ji m -ji ^ 

o-i QJ O! a; 0) 

o o o o o ?^ 



a a a 



+j -fj +j 

o o o 

O <D <U 






o o o o < 



+J -|0 +2 +J 

03 02 CC 03 

OJ 0) OJ (U 

li ;h ^ !h 

O O O O 



MffiMJ^wo ooooSo SwSS S w 













O 








o 












• • • qj 

:-^ : a 


QJ <u" 

a -1 S 




.£ 


















o 
o 
CO 








0) 

o 




(B tH O '-' 


1^ o^'^ 

i III . 




1 
1 


c 

a, 

4 


c 




03 






o" S 


c 
"5 

CI 


CI 


.1 




^ >. ^ oT 

QJ <U 03 C 

.s.s.s-l 

ac ci. 


^ 03 S O o 


CL, 


. .S.2 a; 








<rf <^ ^ Q 


CO 


G C C CI 
r- o3 o3 c3 03 
o .S^ .H .Si .« 




CO 


O 


4!i 

o 


03 
O 






s 


^ 

s 


■~ o 


5, c 


c 




a; 


»3 73 o: 03 03 
03 Ih !h ;-. t< 
-< O O O O 

oooo 


o S p=H m 





03 C3 



00 OCOTfH 
CO <M lO rfi 



-ti O ^ C2 C5 O 
CO IM lO <M IM C3 
-* (M (M Tfi --I 05 



O Ci O '+< GO iM 
O CO O O O CO 
CO O (M i-H (M (M 



l^ t^ rt ,-H 

O CO 00 CO 
t--. CO CO o 



' Si 
H <3 



bC 3 

I5 QJ 



.22 ^;, o <» 

•^ bC S 03 

03 r-< ^r: r/1 



bC^j.S a<c3 

03'-'^ °^ 

03 0§0 



■^ a O.H o3 o3 



§ § « 

S c3 O 
oSPhPh 

." Y aJ P C-;r 

a^ a Qj.sf S 
-GOO cr^ aJ 
oooa-iS 



w 



I 



(u a > ^ _i 

Si's. 2^ ^ 



=2 oj o 
QJ *^ o 



O 



aj oj oj 
t-i %i -^ 

c '^ c 



G QJ rrl fc- 









>hJ 



o 



fl i> 



c3 O 






H H m 



. oj 

o 



<5^ 



X 



o 



INTRODUCTION Xxiii 

The foregoing list of forests is not necessarily conclusive, since it is a 
matter of individual opinion which are the most typical and instructive. 
It is, therefore, of interest to give, in addition, another Hst furnished by 
Henry, for years Assistant Director of the National School of Forestry at 
Nancy. The fact that many of the forests mentioned in the preceding 
table are duplicated by Henry make it all the more authoritative, espe- 
cially since the list which follows was compiled in collaboration with his 
professional colleagues. According to Henry: *''In such a vast region as 
the Central Plateau, one cannot cite a single characteristic forest. It is 
necessary to examine quite a number." 

This list is classified by forest regions rather than by conservations or 
administrative divisions: 

VOSGES 

1. Periegelaine Lorraine: Forest of Haye (Calcareous soil), Amance (clay). 

2. La Voge: Darriey. 

3. Basses- Vosges (Gres Vosgien) : Celles, Bois Sauvages, Ellieux. 

4. Hautes-Vosges (Granite) : Gerardmer, Rudlin. 

JURA 

1. First Plateau: Forest of Moidons. 

2. Second Plateau: La Joux, Levier. 

3. Third Plateau: Pontarlier, La Fuvelle. 

4. Haute- Jura: La Risoux, Le Mont d'Or (almost wholly grazing). 

ALPS 

1. North Alps. 

(a) Pre-Alpes (Calcaires) : Forest of Grande Chartreuse, La Bauges 
(6) Hautes-Alpes : La Maurienne, La Tarentaise (Briangon). 

2. South Alps. 

(a) Pre-Alpes (Calcaires) : Le Luberon. 

(6) Hautes-Alpes: Vallee de Barcellonette, Foret des Alpes-Maritimes — Massif 
d' Alios. 

CENTRAL PLATEAU 

1. North: Le Morvan. 

2. South: La Montagne Noire I'Aigonal. 

PYRENEES 

1. East: Forest of Entrevals. 

2. Central and West: Luchon, Iraty. 

PROVEN5ALE 

Forest of Maures et de I'Esterel. 

GIRONDINE 

1. Oaks de I'Adour: Forest of Titieux. 

2. Maritime Pine of the Landes and the Dunes : Forests near Mimizan and Arcachon. 

Provided we may judge from the lessons of French forest history the 
following conclusions are fully warranted, and, because they are gener- 
ally applicable to countries of the temperate zone, should be brought 
home to every citizen of the United States: 



xxiv INTRODUCTION 

(1) No great nation can prosper without controlling forest destruction 
and without practicing forestry. Decadent nations (outside the tropical 
zone about which we know little) have no considerable areas of valuable 
forests, either in public or private hands. Under modern civilization, 
decadence and widespread, permanent devastation of an existing forest 
resource are inter-related, especially in localities with somewhat deficient 
rainfall. With forest devastation the local population within potential 
forest areas decreases. 

(2) From the national economic viewpoint the indirect benefits of 
forests have a bearing on the nation's health, climate, and general 
prosperity. 

(3) The financial returns or direct benefits from permanent forest pro- 
duction are usually less than the average net profits secured from other 
forms of conservative business, and the risk of growing forests is con- 
siderable — the more extensive the conditions usually the greater is the 
risk. But in some cases private forests can be handled properly as a 
conservative investment provided the economic conditions are satisfac- 
tory and provided technical and financial assistance is given by the State. 

(4) If forest production and an equitable annual yield is to be sus- 
tained obligatory regulation is essential, not only in private but also in 
public forest management, but the success of mandatory forestry on 
private land is very doubtful if the owner maintains his forest solely for 
its return in money, unless the State cooperates. 

(5) Where private owners are not restrained by law and where the sole 
aim is immediate financial profit, their forests are usually destroyed, and 
during the process of disintegration often constitute a public menace. 
This rapid realization of growing stock or capital is because the forest is 
usually a poor permanent investment and because of the inherent human 
tendency toward rapid gain. 

(6) The far-reaching results of forest destruction are often slow in 
making themselves felt, but are cumulative in their adverse effect on the 
public interests. The correction of forest denudation is so slow and so 
exceedingly expensive that most if not all mountain forest areas should be 
controlled by the State. 

(7) With the harvest of virgin stands stumpage prices (and the cost of 
the wood products) increase until they attain the cost of producing timber 
under forest management. Even when all the timber of a nation is being 
grown as a crop, prices of material of the same quality tend to increase 
with the intensity of civilization. 

(8) In great land States (such as many of the United States) the 
business of forestry with its related industries will, next to agriculture, be 
the chief source of prosperity. The value of forest land generally de- 
creases after forest destruction and increases according to the amount of 



INTRODUCTION XXV 

net revenue earned by forest production, subject to the development of 
the use of land for other purposes. 

(9) As a new country with vast timber resources develops industrially 
the per capita consumption may show a decline as a result of the use of 
other materials for construction; there is, however, a certain limit beyond 
which consumption cannot fall without serious economic handicaps. The 
tendency of modern commercial progress is to create new uses for woods 
which overbalance substitution and other factors checking consumption. 
Similarly, with more intensive settlement, forests for recreational uses 
become more and more essential to national efficiency and health. 

(10) The milder the climate (in the temperate zone) the more rapid is 
forest production, and consequently the shorter is the time required to 
grow forest crops on soils of similar capacity. Therefore, large areas in 
the United States are admirably adapted to forest production. 

(11) No nation has learned and taken to heart the benefits of forestry 
without first experiencing economic shortage, disasters from floods, 
erosion, over-grazing, and other adverse results of forest devastation. 

The conclusion is inevitable that the public is the ideal long-term forest 
owner because it can take a part of its profits in indirect benefits; there- 
fore, a very much larger proportion of the forests of the United States 
should be owned and managed l)y the Federal, State, and local govern- 
ments. Where the private-forest owner uses his property so as to damage 
the interests of others he must be restrained by wise laws, properly ad- 
ministered and enforced, Init the success of mandatory forestry on private 
lands held solely for direct profits is very doubtful, unless there is State 
cooperation. 
According to Marcel Prevost of the French Academy: 
" The trees of France must be protected. Precisely because the tree lasts so much 
longer than the human life, it should not belong absolutely to the man who is the nomi- 
nal owner. It should become a part of the commimal inheritance. Society has a right 
to exercise a 'surveillance ' over the owners of trees. . . . God knows I do not favor 
any intrusion into private affairs by the State ! Nevertheless, if I were a legislator I 
would vote for a law which would forbid the whimsical felling of high forest trees, and 
which would require every Frenchman to set out at least two trees during his life or to 
pay for having them planted." 

What better exhortation could there be as an introduction to French 
forestry, since its inherent characteristic is "Sacrifice of present benefits 
for the future generation." As Boppe put it, "Silviculture is a science 
relating to the phenomena of the development of the average forest and 
the art of cutting it without hindering its physiological requirements." 
The French forester does not wish to disturb Nature's equilibrium. His 
work is in the forest rather than on paper. If I have correctly portrayed 
the spirit of the French forester I shall be satisfied. 

This study is based upon a three-months' trip through French forests in 



XXvi INTRODUCTION 

1905, six months in 1912-13, and in part by trips through forests in 1917- 
19 in connection with the work of the Engineers (Forestry), U. S. Army. 
This volume supplements " French Forests and Forestry," published in 
1917 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., which described the forests and forestry 
of Algeria, Tunisia, and Corsica. 

Acknowledgment is made to C. M. Ballard for preparing the text for 
publication and seeing the book through the press, to Commandant 
Badre, who reviewed the technique, and to many friends who made 
valuable suggestions. The photographs were taken by Commandant 
ThioUier unless otherwise indicated. 



Studies in French Forestry 

CHAPTER I 

IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

By W. B. Greeley 
Formerly Lieut.-Col., 20th Engineers, A. E. F. 

Economic Needs and National Traits (p. 1). Forestry a National Art. 

Significant Public Phases of French Forestry (p. 2). The Special Legal 
Status of Forests, A Penal Code of Their Own, Laws Dealing with Forest Fires, State 
Control of Forest Devastation, A Striking Infringement of Property Rights, Tax 
Exemptions on Forests. 

Forest and Land Conservation (p. 6). Stabilization of the Gascon Sand Dunes, 
Forestation of Communal Lands, Flood Control in the Alps, Expropriation of the Use of 
Land for Forest Enterprises, Private Forests in Conservation Projects, The Core of 
Publicly Owned Forests, Checkered History of the State Forests of France, The Extent 
of the Public Forests, Their Technical Management, The Communal Forests of France, 
Educational Value of the Public Forests. 

Private Forestry in France (p. 12). Its Economic Basis, Forest Versus Farm 
Crops, The Importance of Private Forestry to France, Returns from Private Forests, 
Forest and Sawmill Divorced, Lumber Manufacture Adapted to Forestry Practice, 
Private Forestry on Its Own Feet. 

Forest Problems of France and the United States (p. 15). Intensive Use of 
Limited Resources in France, The Handicap of Lumber Shortage, America's Problem — 
Idle Land. 

Not alone in its technical practice does the forestry of France offer much 
of interest and value to Americans. In the attitude of the French people 
toward their forests, in the historical and legislative development of their 
forest policy, in their public forest enterprises, and in the economic situa- 
tion of France as regartls the supply and use of timber, the United States 
may glean a deal that is suggestive and illuminating. Notwithstanding 
contrasts between new and old world conditions, we may learn much in 
seeing how a nation just as democratic and individualistic as our own has 
met a forest situation similar in some respects to what America herself is 
approaching. 

Economic Needs and National Traits. — Forestry in France rests upon 
two main bases. The first is economic necessity; the second, national 
temperament. The shortage of home-grown timber compels France to 

1 



2 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

import from 30 to 40 per cent of the wood products which she requires. 
Hence the timber produced in her own forests not only has a high value 
but is utiHzed far more closely than is now possible in the United States. 
Intensive use of forest land — particularly the maintenance of forests on 
large areas of mountain slopes and sand plains unfit for farm crops — 
follows of necessity. But, to an almost equal degree, forestry in France 
is an expression of the thrift, the conservatism, the love of beauty, and 
the social inheritances of the French people. The genius of the French 
for making the most of small things, developed by centuries of close and 
frugal living, is expressed in the thrifty growing of wood on odds and 
ends of poor land, in hedges, in the rows of trees bordering roads, canals, 
and farms. The love of the chase and the social prestige conferred by the 
ownership of forests and hunting preserves, so highly prized by the old 
seigneurs, survive in modern France. Many forests have been preserved 
to serve as a beautiful setting for a chateau. We will not interpret 
forestry in France rightly as a purely economic development. The 
national traits and hal^its of her people have contributed largely to it and 
are reflected in her forest legislation and public policies. 

Forestry a National Art. — By the same token, the American is im- 
pressed by the well-nigh universal understanding of forestry on the part 
of the French people. Forestry in France is far more than a propaganda. 
Like American agriculture, its practice is much older than its science. 
It is a rural art, ingrained in the lives and habits and modes of thinking 
of the people. Deputies in Parliament write newspaper articles on forest 
fires or forest taxation or reforestation in the Alps. The local silviculture 
is a part of the farm lore of the region — on the same footing as the care 
of vineyards or the growing of wheat. It is not to l)e inferred that 
forestry practice in France is uniformly good or that her forest policies 
command united support. The French are far too individualistic a race 
for that. Local antagonisms, as on the part of the Alpine mountaineers, 
have handicapped public efforts; and the commercial considerations of 
the moment have outweighed conservative forest management in the case 
of many land owners, even on occasion in the case of the State itself. But 
a striking difference exists between France and the United States in that 
forestry with us is still largely a governmental activity alone, an educa- 
tional development working downward from the top, whereas in France 
it is an established art — a common possession of the rural population. 

SIGNIFICANT PUBLIC PHASES OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

The Special Legal Status of Forests. — Forest conservation has thus 
become almost an instinct of the French people. This makes it easier to 
understand certain public phases of forestry in France which are of 
special interest and suggestiveness to Americans. First among them is 



A PENAL CODE OF THEIR OWN 3 

the legal recognition of forests as a resource standing apart from other 
resources in its need for extraordinary care and protection. In this 
principle of French law are reflected the timber and fuel-wood famines, 
actual or threatened, through which France has passed, and the prolonged 
struggles which she has waged to check sand dunes on the Gascon Coast 
and torrential erosion in the Alps. Because of the long period of time 
required to restore forests once destroyed or impaired and because of the 
far-reaching public interests which they serve, forest property is given a 
special status in French jurisprudence both as regards the police powers 
and duties of the State and as regards the rights of private ownership. 
Under the French theory, a shortage of cereals or other farm crops can be 
made good in a year or two, but public injury from the destruction of 
forests may be irreparable for a generation. Hence, the State must in- 
tervene with special measures for the protection of forests which are 
applicalile to no other forms of property. 

A Penal Code of Their Own. — Probably the most striking application 
of this principle is found in the protective features of the National Forest 
Code. The common law alone is regarded as inadequate for the protec- 
tion of forests in France, which are placed under what is practically a 
separate penal code of their own. This code applies particularly to the 
forests under public administration but certain features of it are extended 
to private forests. Furthermore, the private forest owner may place his 
property under public administration and thereby obtain the full pro- 
tective benefits of the forest codco Many penal provisions of the code 
were taken bodily from ordinances of Louis XIV. After the revolution- 
ary upheaval had subsided, republican France extended to her forests 
many of the severe and restrictive forms of protection which they were 
accorded under the "ancien regime." There is nothing comparable in 
French jurisprudence concerning other classes of property. 

In the maze of detailed prohibitions and penalties in the penal section 
of the forest code, one gains a deal of light upon French conceptions of 
forest conservation. A fixed schedule of fines and imprisonments is 
applicable for trespass and other violations of the code solely upon veri- 
fication of the fact that an offense was committed. Considerations of 
good faith or mitigating circumstaneos are excluded. Aside from penal- 
ties to the State and civil damages to the owner of the forest for tangible 
losses which have been sustained, the code authorizes further damages for 
intangible injuries such as the disruption of a plan of management. These 
are adjudged as not less than the penal fine. Thus the trespasser who 
cuts green timber, however innocently, pays a fine — the commercial value 
of the stumpage cut — and an additional sum representing the value of the 
trees to the owner for further growth or seed production. If trees are 
cut which were planted or sown by hand and do not exceed five years in 



4 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

age, imprisonment is obligatory, together with a fine of 3 francs for every 
tree. 

While the admission of mitigating circumstances is forbidden, the 
courts are compelled to impose severer penalties when a trespass is re- 
peated within twelve months, when it is committed at night, or when 
illegal cutting is dono with the saw. In the last two cases the purpose 
of the heavier punishment is to discourage trespasses under circumstances 
which render them difficult of detection. The difficulties of the State 
service in preventing unauthorized grazing on public forests and the 
stress placed upon the protection of forest reproduction from injury by 
grazing have led to exceptionally severe penalties for offenses of this char- 
acter, involving obligatory imprisonment in most cases. The mere pres- 
ence of sheep or cattle in a public forest is penalized and the stated fines 
are doubled if the animals are discovered in woods under 10 years of age. 

Laws Dealing with Forest Fires. — The provisions of the forest code 
dealing with fire are of special interest to Americans. Fires may not be 
set for any purpose within 600 yards of a forest under public administra- 
tion except by land owners, or in the exercise of public franchises, or with 
the permission of a forest officer. While the incendiary firing of cut tim- 
ber is punished by imprisonment for limited periods, an incendiary fire in 
a forest is punishable by imprisonment at forced labor for Hfe, a distinc- 
tion which well illustrates the French viewpoint toward forest conser- 
vation. The forests of the Mediterranean provinces of France, which 
experience a summer drought and fire hazard comparable to our South- 
west, are placed under the protection of a special fire code. Surface 
burning by land owners to destroy underbrush, a practice formerly com- 
mon at the time of harvesting cork oak bark, is expressly forbidden. 
Neither the owner of the land nor anyone else may set fires within 600 
yards of any area of forest or brush land from June 1 to September 13 in 
each year. The departmental governor alone may authorize the use of 
fire within forest or brush lands for charcoal burning or other industrial 
purposes. And any owner of forest or brush land in this region can com- 
pel his neighbors to share the cost of a fire trench, or break, at the boun- 
daries of adjoining holdings. These breaks must be from 60 to 150 feet 
wide and kept clear of herbs, brush, and resinous trees. 

The forest penal code, which these examples illustrate, is more terrify- 
ing on the statute books than in actual enforcement. This hardly could 
be otherwise in view of the tact and diplomatic skill of French forest 
officers and their effort to overcome local antagonisms to the forest 
policies of the State. Nevertheless it is a striking expression of the 
national instinct of forest conservation. 

State Control of Forest Devastation. — The same solicitude toward 
forests as a resource requiring exceptional public safeguards is illustrated 



A STRIKING INFRINGEMENT OF PROPERTY RIGHTS 5 

by the laws concerning the denudation of privately owned forest lands. 
Here again the minute restrictions of the old kings were swept aside by 
the great outburst of democracy and individualism in the Revolution. 
For a considerable period following 1791 private owners were freed from 
all control and many forests were destroyed. This was in part a neces- 
sary process of converting forests into wheat fields, but apparently went 
too far and contributed to the acute shortage of forest products which 
France experienced near the middle of the Nineteenth Century. In time 
the wave of revolutionary freedom was checked by a reawakening of the 
conservative instincts of the French toward their natural resources. The 
law against the devastation of forest land, which was enacted substan- 
tially in its present form in 1859, has often been called a striking anomaly 
in the jurisprudence of modern France. It restricts the rights of private 
ownership in one class of property alone — forest land — which is 
singled out for special interference and control by the State. 

The French Government does not dictate how the private forest owner 
shall cut his timber but, with the exception of small, isolated tracts or 
enclosed areas adjoining dwellings, holds him responsible for not destroy- 
ing his forest or converting the land to other uses without prior warrant 
from the State. Violations of the law are judged solely by the fact that 
forest land has actually been devastated. Whether this resulted from 
the methods of cutting, from fire, from over-grazing, or from deliberate 
clearing for agriculture is immaterial. So is the intent or good faith of 
the owner. If " defrichement " has actually resulted, without permission 
in advance, the owner of the land is liable to a fine of as much as $115 per 
acre. He may also be ordered to reforest the denuded land within a 
prescribed period. 

These penalties may be avoided by obtaining the consent of the State 
to the destruction of a forest in advance. This requires a declaration of 
intent by the owner of the forest eight months in advance, investigations and 
reviews by various forest and other administrative officials, and a final 
decision by the Minister of Agriculture. The request of an owner to de- 
stroy his forest can be denied on the ground that its preservation is 
essential to protect water sources, to protect mountain slopes from 
erosion, to prevent the movement of sand dunes, or to safeguard the public 
health or the national defense. Many attempts have been made to 
amend the law so that the destruction of a private forest may be forbidden 
on the ground that it is needed by the immediate community or by the 
country at large for growing timber. None of them has yet overcome 
the resistance to this further invasion of the rights and liberties of the 
property owner. 

A Striking Infringement of Property Rights. — The control of private 
forests and forest devastation thus stands as an interesting compromise 



6 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

between the French instinct for forest conservation and their prcsont-(Uiy 
si)irit of personal liberty. With its limited application the value of this 
law exists largely as a support of the efforts of the Government to prevent 
deforestation on mountain slopes where torrential erosion is liable to occur. 
The law is of special interest to Americans, however, because it expresses 
a far-reaching principle — the responsibility of the private forest owner 
for keeping his land productive as a forest. The significance of this in- 
fringement of the rights of private ownership can be appreciated only in 
the light of the sacredness of property rights in France. A people fully 
as jealous of individual liberties as ourselves have not hesitated to curtail 
property rights — in the case of forests as distinct from all other classes 
of land — because of the special public interests which forests serve. 

Tax Exemptions on Forests. — The distinctive value of forests as a 
national resource is also recognized by the French in their methods of 
taxation. All forest plantations are accorded tax exemptions in varying 
degrees during the first 30 years. This exemption from tax burdens is 
complete in the case of plantations on mountain slopes or summits or on 
sand dunes or other barrens. Otherwise forests in France are taxed on 
their current income. Under the law of 1907 land in all forms of culture 
is classified periodically in accordance with its productivity. There may 
thus be three or four classes of forest land as determined by soil, timber 
species, and the value of wood products. The net yearly income from 
each class of forest is then fixed from a study of sample areas. All forest 
properties are classified and assigned an income rating. This represents 
the average net yearly receipts for wood and timber after deducting costs 
of upkeep, fire protection, administration, thinnings, planting, and other 
cultural measures. The national and local taxes usually amount to 8 or 
10 per cent of the net income. 

FOREST AND LAND CONSERVATION 

Stabilization of the Gascon Sand Dunes. — Another striking chapter 
in the economic history of France, in keeping with her national attitude 
toward forests, has been the recognition of forestry and related land 
problems as a special field for pulilic initiative and development, together 
with the value of "the armor of the forest" for stopping destructive 
movements of soil and water. At the beginning of the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury, a large section of southwestern France was menaced by the sand 
dunes along the Gascon Coast. Various attempts to check this invasion 
during the preceding century had been futile. Many of the dunes were 
moving inland at rates varying from 30 to 100 feet a year, burying farms 
and villages in their path. 

A successful method of comjjatting the dunes was finally evolved. 



FLOOD CONTROL IN THE ALPS 7 

through stabihzing the outer waves of sand with mats of brush and hardy- 
herbs and then sowing the ground with maritime pine, a fast-growing 
pitch pine native to the region. A national project for stabilizing and 
foresting the entire Gascon dune belt, of some 250,000 acres, was initiated 
in 1810 and completed during the following 60 years. In the prosecution 
of this work, section by section, each land owner was given the choice of 
doing the work himself under State supervision or of placing his land 
under the custody of the National Government which then proceeded 
with reforestation at its own cost. Once the forest was established the 
owner could acquire possession of his land by reimbursing the public out- 
lay upon it with interest. Otherwise the State retained possession until 
its expenditures had been recouped from sales of timber and naval stores. 
This process, in fact, was surprisingly rapid, owing to thejow cost of plant- 
ing, the rapid growth of maritime pine in the humid climate of the region, 
and its early yields of turpentine and timber. The Government of 
France, which did practically all the planting itself, has retained in the 
whole dune belt some 150,000 acres. Most of this has been incorporated 
in permanent State forests which form a protective belt along the coast 
and are managed with special precautions to prevent fresh outbreaks of 
the old peril. The remaining land has been restored to its original private 
and communal owners. 

Forestation of Communal Lands. — The successful reforestation of the 
dune belt led to another public forestry enterprise in this region. A law 
passed in 1857 ordered the planting of all the barren and unused land 
owned by communes throughout the great sand plain known as the 
Landes. Again the State stood ready to shoulder the work if the owners 
of the land were unwilling or unable to carry it out and to retain possession 
of the planted forests until the cost of their creation had been returned. 
This time, however. State planting was unnecessary. The communes 
carried out the law themselves and under its far-sighted terms 185,000 
acres were added to the public forests of France. 

Flood Control in the Alps. — In the control of torrential erosion in the 
Alps, with its destructive effects upon the farm lands in the lower valleys, 
France has undertaken another public forestry enterprise of a far more 
difficult character. The erosion was traceable directly to forest denuda- 
tion and excessive grazing of the Alpine pastures. The difficulty has lain 
chiefly in the resistance of the mountain people to outside interference in 
the exercise of their ancestral rights and the pastoral pursuits upon which 
their livehhood largely depends. 

Following the severe floods of 1859 a law ''on the reforestation of the 
mountains" authorized the designation of restoration areas within which 
existing forests were placed under public control and the planting of de- 
nuded lands was decreed as necessary in the public interest. Private 



8 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

owners who declined to reforest their lands were expropriated by the 
State, with indemnities, but could reacquire their property within five 
years after planting had been finished by reirahursing the Government 
for all outlays expended upon it. Communal lands, under like conditions, 
were not condemned but were taken possession of by the State, to be 
planted and held until revenues from the newly created forests had wiped 
out the account. 

Under the obstacles created by hostile local sentiment and the reluc- 
tance of the French Government to deal with it forcefully, this project has 
made but- slow progress. The law was changed in 1882 owing to the 
opposition of the mountain communes to what they asserted, with some 
degree of justice, was the practical confiscation of their lands without 
indemnity; and since that time all areas where planting or other intensive 
measures were needed have been acquired outright by the State. The 
protection of mountain watersheds in France has thus taken a course 
almost identical with that in the United States under the terms of the 
Weeks law, that is, public acquisition and absolute control of important 
"key" areas. The French Government has thus acquired about 200,000 
acres on the headwaters of important streams in the Alps, and the work is 
still being continued. In addition some 52,500 acres of communal lands 
were reforested under the earlier law and placed under public adminis- 
tration. 

Under the law of 1882 France has also attempted to enforce a new and 
significant principle in watershed protection. This is the designation of 
large protection belts in the mountains, surrounding the limited areas in 
which serious erosion is actually taking place and must be combatted by 
intensive methods. In these protective zones, which were designed to 
prevent the starting of fresh torrents, the administration was empowered 
to forbid any use of land or forest which would destroy the vegetative 
cover. And to extend further the general scheme of prevention, the 
grazing of certain communal pasture lands was placed under public con- 
trol. The administrative procedure devised for carrying out this system 
has been exceedingly cumbersome and has sought to conciliate local oppo- 
sition at every turn with many provisions for safeguards and indemnities. 
Its practical value has been very small, and the effort of the French 
Forest Service to check mountain floods has of late years been concen- 
trated mainly upon the acquisition of land at critical points by the State 
and its systematic reforestation. 

The actual work done in the Alpine gorges and on their adjoining 
slopes is an example of intensive conservation fully as striking as the 
stabilization of the sand dunes. Tree planting is the primary method, 
but it was necessary at many points to hold the soil or stop the cut- 
ting action of streams before planting was possible or would be effective. 



THE CORE OF PUBLICLY OWNED FORESTS ' 9 

Small gullies have been blocked with dams of sod or loose stones or with 
brush rip raps. More elaborate dams of rubble or masonry have been 
built in the channels of many torrents, sometimes at intervals of a few 
chains to check erosion and the rush of floodwater and afford soil-collect- 
ing basins which would later be planted with trees. Rubble or masonry 
dams or walls have been constructed at various points to stop the caving 
of banks or check incipient land-shps or snow-slides. Hardy shrubs have 
been set out in masses of glacial drift or the talus of a slope where the 
ground was too unstable or too sterile to support trees. But the general 
aim is to get the land under forest cover as soon as it can be done. French 
foresters and engineers are agreed that an extensive mantle of forest is the 
final solution to watershed protection. 

Expropriation of the Use of Land for Forest Enterprises. — One of the 
legal principles developed in these public forest enterprises of France sug- 
gests a modus operandi for State or Federal projects in America where the 
reforestation of private land is deemed necessary in the public interest. 
It bears points of similarity to the plan already adopted by some of our 
States to encourage the planting of private land. This principle is not 
the purchase or condemnation of private property — but the expropria- 
tion of its tenure, or occupancy, for a sufficient period to establish forests, 
with provision for ultimately restoring the land to its owner after it has 
repaid the cost of the enterprise. Applied in the southwestern sand 
plains where planting was cheap and tree growth rapid and where returns 
from the new forest were realized in a relatively short time, this method 
succeeded. Applied in the Alps, where reforestation was much more 
costly and the climate much more rigorous, it amounted to practical con- 
fiscation and failed. In both instances it bears proof of the French atti- 
tude toward the conservation of forests and soil as a dominant public 
interest, taking precedence over the rights of private property. 

Private Forests in Conservation Projects. — Another illustration of 
the same national viewpoint, Ijrought out in the development of French 
policy in dealing with sand dunes and mountain torrents, is the provision 
of law placing all forests within the perimeters of control or restoration 
projects, whatever their ownership, under the "regime forestier." That 
is, such forests not merely are subject to the law preventing denudation; 
they can be cut only in accordance with methods approved by the State 
service. They are also accorded in full the special and stringent pro- 
tective measures carried by the penal section of the forest code. Private 
forests on the critical areas embraced in public conservation projects are 
thus given a special status — • subject both to public control and an ex- 
ceptional degree of public protection. 

The Core of Publicly Owned Forests. — Another interesting and sug- 
gestive fact about France is the extent to which her forestry develop- 



10 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

ments and activities have centered around and grown upon a core of 
publicly owned forests. These national and community holdings fit- 
tingly express the forestry sense, or instinct, of the French people. Their 
extension, their standards of administration, their educational influence, 
the technical service entrusted with their care — these have been first 
and last the greatest supports of forestry development in France. Yet 
their history has not been one of smooth, uninterrupted progress. In 
certain chapters it reminds us strikingly of the history of the public 
domain in the United States, 

Checkered History of the State Forests of France. — The first effect 
of the French Revolution was toward the nationalization of the forests 
of the country. The ro.yal domains, largely forested, were declared to be 
the property of the State. A law of 1789, placing church property at the 
disposition of the nation, added more forests to the public holdings. In 
1792 the forests owned by emigres of the old nobility were confiscated. 
Then a counter, individualistic movement, tending to break up national 
control, set in. In the reaction against the abuses and usurpations of the 
old seigneurs, and during the lax administration of the earlier revolu- 
tionary period, the rural communes were encouraged to take possession of 
the old royal, noble, or ecclesiastical forests under any sort of pretext 
based upon entailed rights or old claims. Many properties of the fugitive 
nobility were restored to their former owners. Large areas of State 
forests were sold outright under the individualistic economic theories of 
the times. Every subsequent revolutionary overturn was followed by 
fresh disposals of State timberland. Up to the beginning of the Third 
Republic the attitude of the French toward their public domain was 
similar at many points to that in the United States during the Nineteenth 
Century. 

Under the Third Republic the policy of France has turned definitely in 
the opposite direction. Alienations of national forests have been re- 
stricted practically to minor adjustments of communal claims. On the 
other hand, the State holdings have been enlarged steadily by plantations 
in the sand dunes and by the purchase and reforestation of mountain 
lands in connection with the protection of watersheds. Most important 
of all, the forest code has placed public forests of every kind, including 
communal lands and the properties of public institutions, under a unified 
public administration, by an expert service of exceptionally high technical 
standards and practical ability. 

The Extent of the Public Forests. — These public forests now comprise 
nearly 8,000,000 acres, about one-third of the forested area of France. 
3,000,000 acres of this total are the property of the French nation, the 
community forests together aggregating considerably more than the 
holdings of the central government. 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE PUBLIC FORESTS 11 

Their Technical Management. — The forest code establishes the 
principle that all of these public forests must be handled under a precise 
scheme of management, the main point of which is to fix the amount of 
wood which may be cut yearly without reducing the growing stock, or 
capital, and to prescribe the methods of cutting so as to maintain the 
productivity of the forests. The importance attached by the French to 
their public forests is illustrated by the fact that the management plan 
for each unit must not only be approved by the high council of the Forest 
Service and by the Minister of Agriculture but must be authorized by a 
decree of the President of the Republic. The function of State and com- 
munal forests is set^ted to be the supplying of national industries with 
the classes of products which they most need, particularly large timber 
which may not be grown on private lands because it is less profitable. 
The purpose of State and other public forests is thus to supplement the 
materials produced in the largest quantities by other owners with choice 
timber whose growing is long and costly, a distinction which often dis- 
appears, however, under the scale of values fixed by supply and demand. 

The Communal Forests of France. — The communal forests of France 
are one of the most interesting and suggestive phases of her public 
forestry. The French Commune may be compared with the New Eng- 
land township — a self-governing, rural community of exact geographical 
limits. In the break-up of the old order these little communities, which 
usually had held entailed rights to the use of wood and forage from royal 
or seigneurial estates, asserted their claims so vigorously as to acquire 
many small tracts of forest and pasture land in fee simple. Their forest 
holdings were increased in various ways, as through the planting of 
185,000 acres in the southwestern sand plains under State supervision. 
To-day they form a sixth of the forests of France. Under the terms of 
the forest code, the great bulk of them are administered as part and parcel 
of the public forests. While still serving their original purpose of fur- 
nishing supplies of wood, especially fuel, for local use, they thus are im- 
portant contributors to the national lumber pile. 

Some communes own and operate their own small sawmills. These 
community forests are important sources of revenue for hundreds of 
French villages, reducing taxes and affording the means for constructing 
town halls, roads, and other local improvements. The situation in 
France would be paralleled if every village in New England or the Lake 
States owned 500 or 1,000 acres of forest, kept continuously in the highest 
state of production, furnishing the timber locally needed, affording a sub- 
stantial income for community purposes, and providing steady employ- 
ment for a number of its citizens. 

Educational Value of the Public Forests. — The real value of the public 
forests of France, as of her whole forestry system expressed in the "regime 



12 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

forestier," can be gauged only in an appreciation of the administrative 
skill of the French, of their practical genius for cooperation, and of the 
intelligence of many rural classes. These factors have extended the 
technical practice in public forests far beyond their own limited areas. 
Public forests and their staff of trained officers are to be found in every 
section of the country. They set the standards and their results have 
demonstrated good forestry to every timber owner in France — in his 
own immediate neighborhood. How to cut and restock timberland has 
thus become a common knowledge of the people. The local forest 
officers of the State are recognized leaders and advisers in all forestry 
matters. Direct forms of cooperation with private land owners have 
resulted in the special recognition given to associations of forest own- 
ers and in the opportunity to place private holdings under the techni- 
cal methods and legal protection of the "regime." The pubhc forests 
have thus had a marked educational value and have given stimulus and 
direction to the whole forestry development of France. 

This fact is indeed suggestive to the United States. In our first steps 
toward forest conservation, public forests, Federal, State, and municipal, 
should have a dominating part. They should be created in every section 
and be identified with its local problems of fire hazard, of timber growth, 
and of provision for future needs. They should develop the technical 
practice adapted to our varied forest types and make it common knowl- 
edge by concrete demonstration, the most effective of all educational 
measures. In democratic America, as in democratic France, a core of 
public forests will prove the key to progress. 

PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

Its Economic Basis. — Private forests in France obviously are on a 
footing totally different from that in the United States. Aside from the 
national conservatism of the French, their love for forests as things of 
beauty, and the social inheritances which put their forests in high regard, 
the high price and close utilization of wood afford an economic basis for 
the successive cropping of timberland. The prevailing stumpage values 
of French timber in 1917 averaged at least five times the prices for corre- 
sponding species in the United States. The American Army, for ex- 
ample, paid about $36 per thousand feet on the stump for oak timber of 
all grades in the Loire River Valley and up to $50 per thousand feet for 
silver fir and spruce in the Vosges Mountains. A crop of hardwood 
coppice, grown in 20 years, brought at the same time from $50 to $60 per 
acre for fuel as it stood in the woods. These were inflated war-time 
rates, but on a pre-war basis the disparity between timber values in 
France and the United States is almost equally great. This is due not 
alone to the shortage of timber in France and the necessity of importing 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PRIVATE FORESTRY TO FRANCE 13 

a third of the lumber which the country uses. Low conversion costs are 
an important factor. The forests of France for the most part are very 
accessible. The simple methods of manufacture by small local mills, 
with almost no investment or overhead charges, are inexpensive. The 
wages paid to forest labor, 5 francs, or less than $1 per day in 1917 and 
still less before the war, is very low. With lumber prices influenced by 
the importations of Baltic and other foreign stock, with keen competition 
for all stumpage put upon the market, the standing timber gains the 
benefit of the low costs of manufacture. The situation in the United 
States, where manufacturing charges are the chief element in the mill 
price of lumber, is reversed in France. The standing tree takes a third or 
more of the selling price of its products. 

Forest Versus Farm Crops, — France contains large areas of land — 
in her eastern and southern mountains, in the southwestern sand plains, 
and in the rugged hills on the headwaters of the Marne and Seine — 
which are fit only for timber production or for grazing. The presence of 
such land — of relatively low value — is a further stimulus to private 
forestry; 1,500,000 acres of private forests, for example, were created out- 
right by planting maritime pine in the Landes. Her forests are not lim- 
ited, however, to areas too poor for cultivation. The economic balance 
between forests and farm crops has shifted at various periods in French 
history. At the time of the Revolution the country was short of agri- 
cultural products, especially cereals, and a large acreage of forest was put 
in tillage. Fifty or sixty years later the pendulum swung back. Short- 
age of farm labor appears to have been the immediate cause. Many 
rural proprietors in central and northern France, finding their fields lying 
fallow year after year, resorted to tree planting. There has been no im- 
portant change since that time with probably a sHght tendency in later 
years to increase the farm area at the expense of the forest. 

We in the United States are prone to think that the farm must always 
be given right of way over the forest; and doubtless that is the safest 
guide in our present stage of development. The economic growth of 
France has carried her beyond such broad assumptions. The demand 
for wheat and the profit in growing it compared with the demand for 
timber and fuel and the profit in growing these products are the considera- 
tions which govern. The area devoted to forest is fixed by the balance 
struck — over comparatively long periods of time — between all the 
economic necessities of the country; and that balance has not thus far 
limited her forests, either publicly or privately owned, to non-agricultural 
lands. This sort of readjustment is impending in some of the older parts 
of the United States. 

The Importance of Private Forestry to France. — Two-thirds of the 
forests of France are privately owned. Her 16,000,000 acres of private 



14 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

forests, which iov [he most part aw faiily well caretl for aiul kept in con- 
tinuous prochu'tion, arc a striking object lesson to Americans wlio are 
wont to rcjiartl forestry as possible only for the Nation or State. About 30 
per cent of them ari> ilevoted to the production of hardwood fuel. Other- 
wise their technical management, while less regular and imiform and usu- 
ally less conservative, does not ditfi'r in essential respects from that of the 
public forests. Upon her privately ownetl forests France depends for the 
bulk of her lumber and fuelwood. 

Returns from Private Forests. — While aesthetic and social considera- 
tions ami the play of national conservatism have their part in this result, 
forestry is a real business in France. Large areas of woodland are held as 
long-term investments and often are highly regarded as stable securities 
ior the investment of family or institutional funds. Well-managed oak 
and beech forests yield net revenues of from 2^ to 4 per cent. Such 
forests may furnish a crop of coppice every 20 or 25 years and at the same 
time usually carry an over story of high-grade timber, which may require 
200 or 240 years to matuie but is actually harvested in small quantities 
at every peiiodic cutting. A large forest property is split into lots or 
compartments containing sprouts or timber of different ages. Some 
material is harvested every year or at least every 4 or 5 years. There is 
thus an actual current revenue in keeping wdth the size of the whole 
property; and the problem of accrued carrying charges, which is so bur- 
densome to the owner of undeveloped timber in the Ignited States, 
scarcely exists in France. 

Forestry as a commercial business is most highly developed in the 
pineries of the Landes where the low value of the land and the combined 
yields of naval stores and timber make it exceptionally profitable. Net 
returns of G per cent on investments in southern pineries are not un- 
common. Here also the revenue is practically continuous. The larger 
properties contain blocks of tindier of varying ages, and aside from a 
st(\uly return from turpentine orcharding, realize every few years upon a 
small cut of stumpage. 

Forest and Sawmill Divorced. — The great bulk of the French forests 
is in separate hands from the timber-using industries. This has an im- 
portant bearing upon their management. The forest is relatively inde- 
pendent of the sawmill. The forest owner determines the amount and 
location of the stumpage which he wishes to cut from year to year. 
Foresters or forest rangers are emploj^ed on all of the larger properties, 
and the cutting area is selected, marked, and estimated by them. The 
sawmills are uniforndy small and most of them are portable. In the 
eastern mountains there are many little stationary mills, driven by steam 
or water power, which obtain their logs from the yearly cuttings on any 
one of a dozen or more forest properties in their vicinity. Logs are 



INTENSIVE USE OF LIMITED RESOURCES IN FRANCE 15 

hauled by ox teams, in full tree lengths, for distances up to 15 or 20 miles, 
to these little mills. In the level pineries of the south a light steam trac- 
tor of the "locomobile" type, operating a band saw 3 or 4 inches wide, is 
almost universal. These Kttle mills roam about the Landes, picking up a 
few hundred cubic meters of timber here and there, sawing it into boards, 
and then passing on, leaving neat, triangular cribs of lumber to be hauled 
out by the two- wheeled mule carts of the region whenever it has seasoned 
sufficiently. 

Lumber Manufacture Adapted to Forestry Practice. — In a word, the 
lumber manufacturing industry has grown up on and adapted itself to 
a system of forest management which permits but small cuttings at any 
one place in any one year or series of years. Cases are rare when the well- 
being and permanence of the forest are sacrificed to the requirements of a 
manufacturing enterprise — an exact opposite of the situation so com- 
mon in the United States where the manufacturer owns the timber and 
has denuded one forest region after another in order to supply his large 
stationary mills to their maximum capacity. While this relation is 
largely a result rather than a cause of the economic status of private 
forestry in France, it indicates the industrial adjustments which will be- 
come necessary in America as our emphasis shifts from supplying saw- 
mills to growing timber. 

Private Forestry On Its Own Feet. — Private forestry in France stands 
largely upon its own merits. It is mainly a free reaction to the economic 
requirements of the country and an expression of the thrift and habits of 
its people. Aside from tax exemptions on plantations under 30 years of 
age and assistance in technical practice, it receives no public subsidies or 
support. The laws against devastation have restricted the decrease of 
forest areas in the French mountains — but elsewhere have not had an 
important effect. It is probable that the greatest public leverage upon the 
private owner to keep his timberland productive has been the stimulus 
and example of the publicly owned forests, with their wide distribution 
throughout France and their high standards of technical practice. 

FOREST PROBLEMS OF FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES 

Intensive Use of Limited Resources in France. — The forest problem 
of France is totally different from that of the United States. Intensive 
use of a limited land area to support her dense population is forced upon 
France. Her situation would be paralleled if a third of the people in 
the United States were crowded into an area somewhat smaller than 
the State of Texas. At the best, France must import a large volume of 
wood products. France has had to strike a close balance between her 
needs for lumber and her needs for farm crops and, notwithstanding the 
number of mouths to be fed, has had to devote a considerable acreage of 



16 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

agricultural land to timber production. Intensive methods of growing 
successive crops of timber form a necessary part of her national economy. 
The shortage and high cost of wood have given an impetus to the practice 
of forestry as a business which is scarcely approached in any part of the 
United States. 

The Handicap of Lumber Shortage. — Lack of cheap lumber is an 
economic handicap in France. It is apparent, particularly in her rural 
districts, where a new structure of any kind is a rare sight and the ancient, 
moss-covered farm buildings give an impression of decadence which is 
only partly real but nevertheless portrays forcibly the low standards of 
rural improvements which not only reduce the comfort and wholesome- 
ness of country life but inevitably lower the efficiency of agricultural in- 
dustries. The manufacturing industries of France suffer from the 
scarcity and high cost of timber. The per-capita consumption of lumber 
is not more than 100 board feet per annum, less than one-third that of the 
United States. In other words, France illustrates the evils of a situation 
where lumber is a luxury, in part — an imported luxury. Her 18 per 
cent of forested land is not enough. Her intensive forestry can but 
partially offset the effects of a shortage of timber-producing land. 

America's Problem — Idle Land. — It is not our problem in the 
United States to strike a close balance between the forest and the farm. 
That can be left to the economic adjustments of the future. We have an 
ample area of forest land beyond all requirements for agriculture. It is 
rather our problem to put idle land to use. The United States contains 
probably 500,000,000 acres of forest land. Our uncut virgin timber has 
been reduced to not more than 150,000,000 acres. Of the 350,000,000 
acres of cutover land at least a third has been reduced by heavy cutting 
and forest fires to unproductive wastes. An area of forest land at least 
five times that of all the forests of France combined is producing nothing. 

Timber has been cheap and plentiful in the United States as compared 
with other nations. Our per-capita consumption of lumber is two or 
three times that of any of our principal competitors. It is our problem 
to keep timber cheap and plentiful, to make it unnecessary to restrict the 
use of wood in domestic industries or export trade, to avoid reductions in 
the per-capita consumption of lumber toward the lowest limits of civilized 
existence which it has reached in France. This does not require as yet 
the practice of intensive European forestry. It can be accomplished by 
the simplest measures of protection and regeneration which will keep 
timberland productive. The starting point must be to stop the devasta- 
tion of the forest lands now being cut and to put our millions of idle acres 
at work growing trees. This will require not only a large share of public 
cooperation but also, as in France, a recognition of the obligations carried 
by forest ownership. 



CHAPTER II » 
THE ROLE OF FORESTS 

The Value of Forests (p. 17). Objective, Dangers of Deforestation, Fundamen- 
tal Causes, Obligation of the State. 

Forest Influences (p. 19). Effect on Temperature (Air Soil), Wind, Frost, Hail, 
Humidity and Rainfall, Water Level, Springs, Floods, Avalanches and Erosion, Health, 
Recreation, and Beauty, Literature and Art. 

THE VALUE OF FORESTS 

Objective. — The objective of this chapter is to give the American 
forester an insight into French views — somewhat ideahstic to be sure — 
on the role that the forests play in national hfe and to summarize briefly 
the technical viewpoint on "forest influences." Huff el's exposition on 
forests and springs is given in full in the Appendix, p. 361, and Jacquot's 
statement on the physical, economic, and social rule of forests, on p. 381. 

Dangers of Deforestation. — If forests fail to yield a good revenue, 
should they be cut? or are they worth financial sacrifices? French policy 
is based on the economic fact that her forests are worth the sacrifice, and 
her forest history points unfalteringly to the evils of reckless deforesta- 
tion. Who could view the eroded Alps, Pyrenees, or the torrents of the 
Lozere and think otherwise? The penalty for using up forest capital is 
too great. 

" When the mountains are baked ^ all is ruined. The rains . . . fall in torrents 
and rush off the denuded soil. They first carry off the vegetable cover. The mountain 
shows its rocky skeleton, the rocks break up, cones of erosion are formed, landslides, 
gullies, unstable slopes become so many running sores by which the substance of the 
mountain is carried down. The rocks offer more or less resistance according to their 
texture, but none withstand. Even granite splits up into enormous blocks which roll 
irresistibly down into the valleys. . . . When the highlands are ruined, what becomes 
of the plain? . . . The river becomes a torrent when it rains, carrying down earth, 
trees, and rocks. Swollen beyond measure, it flows over the plain in a sudden flood 
which destroys houses, flocks, villages, and people. . . . The sudden flood is char- 
acteristic of denuded countries . . . the mountain can no longer supply the valley 
with water. Now is the time of drought and famine. Irrigation is impossible for the 
rivers are dry. . . . The cultivators try to continue the struggle by means of 
reservoirs and costly dams." 

What a picture, but how true! Look at deforested countries and they 

1 G. A. Pearson kindly reviewed this chapter. 

2 Deboisement et Decadence. F. Regnault. La Revue, March 1, 1904. 

17 



18 THE ROLE OF FORESTS 

all bear the same evidence: Palestine, Assyria, Arabia, Greece, Tunisia, 
Algeria, Italy, Spain, Persia, Sardinia, Dalmatia. To-day England is 
the only virile Great Power without extensive forests; what she has are in 
her colonies. It appears that decadence goes hand in hand with de- 
forestation. Which is the foundation stone of a nation's dechne? Is the 
sequence decadence-deforestation or deforestation-decadence? Or is de- 
forestation simply a general lack of foresight coupled with poor forest man- 
agement? 

Fundamental Causes. — What is the fundamental cause of deforesta- 
tion? According to Regnault: 

"It is well to seek the causes. They are of various kinds. The most important is 
civilization itself. Civilization increases the sale value of wood, and provides the means 
of transport, without which sales would be very limited. It awakes greed in the mind 
of the landowner and at the same time allows him to satisfy his greed. Thus the barest 
countries are always the seats of the oldest civilizations. Certainly, when the landowner 
finds it to his interest to plant, he does not hesitate to do so. Thus the truffle industry 
has caused the plantation of more than 148,000 acres of oak in the Vauclusc; and re- 
cently the oil trade has caused the plantation of an immense olive forest round Sfax in 
Tunis. But such cases are quite exceptional. 

"The cutting of trees is a source of immediate profit, but it entails later a great dimi- 
nution of revenues. Hence reboisement meets with great difficulties, not only in the 
want of money, but in the hostility of the inhabitants. These people were originally 
hunters, woodsmen, petty cultivators, but especially herdsmen, enjoying rich pastures 
and large herds of cattle. The destruction of the forest forces them to change their liveli- 
hood. They become shepherds and goatherds, for sheep and goats are the only animals 
which can exist on the soil when it has become impoverished. These animals live on 
young shoots and buds, and prevent the forest from growing again. The shepherds 
themselves oppose every attempt at reboisement, pulling up young trees, destroying 
seedlings, etc., for they fear to lose their living. They even burn the forest in order to 
obtain further areas, until the mountain disintegrates and their last resources are 
swept away by landslides and erosion. 

"The political condition is of great importance. A strong government enforces respect 
for the forests." 

Obligation of the State. — Speaking of the deforestation in France 
Regnault calls upon the State to do its duty:^ 

"While the State is thus so badly neglecting its duty, all the authors who have studied 
the subject of deboisement are agreed that the State is the only possible source of salva- 
tion. They wish to forbid all clearings by communes or by private persons, and to make 
the private interest yield to the public good. A despotic government can indeed en- 
force blind obedience on the part of its subjects, but in a republic, where every one is a 
judge and critic of policy, the best laws are useless unless the citizens understand their 
utility." 

After a careful study of the Loire watershed, Benardeau, then Conserva- 
tor of Forests at Moulins (Allier), concluded as follows:* 

3 La Foret, A. Jacquot, 1900. 

* Correction de la Loire et de ses Affluents, F. Benardeau, deuxiSme edition, 1906. 



EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE (AIR SOIL) 19 

"To summarize: forests scarcely cover 13 per cent of the surface of the valley of the 
Loire, while the average for France reaches 18.7 per cent. Two per cent only of the 
wooded area was under forestry regulations. . . . We must not, therefore, be too 
surprised about the damage which everybody regrets today, but for which every one is 
in a way responsible. All the vital interests of the country, its military force, its agri- 
culture, its industry, its commerce, its navy, the climate, temperature, the conservation 
of the soil and of the waters which supply it, even the existence of a part of the popula- 
tion which lives by manual labor in the neighborhood of forests, or from the product of 
its stock in mountainous regions, have an interest in the Loire problem which is really 
connected with the most serious problems of economic policy. Considering the con- 
tinual development of material interests that periodic inundations jeopardize, the public 
executive power will not hesitate to agree to the necessary sacrifices, especially if they 
recall that the single flood of June 4, 1856, not counting the human lives, houses, goods, 
manufactures, and harvests destroyed, has cost 33.4 million dollars for defence better- 
ments and lines of communications. 

"The improvements that are required, owing to the bad condition of the Loire and 
Allier Rivers, are just as useful as a work made for the national defense and where the 
budget (with the backing of pubhc opinion) has always been on such a generous scale. 
For the complete suppression of erosion and of sand deposits, it appears necessary to 
give the Service des Eaux et Forets sufficient resources, in order that improvements may 
be made in advance of the damage, which is incessant in the basins of these rivers." 

It is true that the discovery of iron, cement, coal, gas, and electricity 
has tremendously reduced the need of wood. Yet a French writer says: 
"Even without modern uses of iron, cement, and coal there is an in- 
sufficiency in the world's wood production which some time will be keenly 
felt by the great powers of the world." 

There is therefore every incentive to inculcate in the minds of all 
students the national need for wise forest management. This study, the 
French believe, should begin in primary and secondary schools. Arbor 
day (fetes de I'Arbre) celebrations are required by law. There are French 
societies organized for the promulgation of forestry. The Jura has sixty- 
eight such societies and the Touring Club de France has a standing com- 
mittee on conservation. In France the planting of trees as a celebration 
at births is often practiced, and in Alsace trees are often planted at both 
births and marriages. To celebrate the birth of the "King of Rome" in 
1811 an entire forest was planted. It is felt necessary to make the love 
of forests and realization of the necessity for their wise use a part of 
French national life.^ 

FOREST INFLUENCES 

Effect on Temperature (Air Soil). — According to investigations 
started by Mathieu at Nancy in 1886, the mean annual temperature is 
less in the forest than outside. Other investigators have confirmed these 

5 The French viewpoint is admirably presented by Jacquot in his summary of "The 
Forest, from a Physical, Economic, and Social Viewpoint." A brief and translation is 
given in the Appendix, p. 381. 



20 'I'm; \h)\jK ov I'OKiisrs 

v;iv\\ l''i-('ncli iM\t\sliii;;ilit)ns. 'Vhc rt>sulls of ;in cxixMiiiUMit (lS(i!l 1S88) 
111 n 1hh>('1i loivsl ;it ;i.M altitude of 1,115 foot showrd the moan annual ivm- 
juMaturo insitlo tlu^ fon^sl to l>o O.l;")'' (\ loss than outsi(l(\ In tliiitoon 
oxporitnonlis at. various altiludos in pino, s|)i'U('o, l)(>(>cli, and Inrcli i'orosts, 
(lu> I'orosl tiMuporaturo avorai^iHl O.lUi'' C\ loss than in tho opon. Tho 
dilT(M-on('(> was ixroalor in sununor than in \vinl(M-. Tlu^ moan niaxinuun 
days at Naiioy avorasod 24°{).48'C\ (7G°F.) in tlu> opcMi and 21°().r)r(\ 
(^7(rd.7'I'\) in tlio i'orosl. In tho oold woalhor tlu> av(Ma,u;o oulsido (ho 
forost. was -5° 0.12' (\ (31.8!)^ V.), insido - 1^^0.21' ('. [-MAn^ V.). Tho 
invos(ij»;a.lion thus showod that tho tcMiipiMaturi' (^xtriMn(\s wim-(> raised 3° 
(o r>'' ( '. l>y M forost oovor. but that tho t(Mnp(M-aturi> in tho for(»st was 
warnuM- in wint(M- aiul oooh>r in sununer. in other words, the forest acts 
as an (Hpializor of tomp^M-aturo.*^ 

'V\\c Nancy rt>s(>ar('h ollioors established the followinp; laws: (1) The 
n\(\>n annual lompiaatufo that was nwoluMl is .'^ (\ loss in th(^ forost than 
in a nearby op(Mi ari>a. {'2) Tliis ililToroneo in t(Mnporatur(\ wlulo slight 
tluriuij; tho wintoi- months, is greater in summer. {3) 'Vhc mininuun 
tempor.aturt^ is raistnl in tlu^ fon^sts by nearly \'^ C. and tho maxinuun 
lessened al>out 2''C'. In o{\\cv wonls. there is a doeidoil ditTorenoo bo- 
twtHMi the minin\um and maxinuun of 3"^ C\ 

In additi(Mi it m;ty lu^ said th.at oonifors Iossimi wintiM- oxtremi^s o'i tom- 
peialure more llian ^\o brtKulK^avi^s and that \\\c diMiser the summer 
foliage the eooler tho forest, in i-omparison with the opvn areas. Thosi^ 
differ«M\ees are groatc^st at 35 to 10 foiM above the soil. 

Investigations by (.'uif" show o^MU'lusivt'ly that soil is almost 4° C. 
warmer dm'ing July in the open than under high forest or vmdor ooppiee. 
Ho .also proved that soil temperature variations outside and inside the 
forests are loss extreme than tho variations in the air temperature by from 
2^' [o V C. 

Wind. The value of forests as shelter belts against the wiuil is 
prmed (ov agrieultural i-ri^ps and for watiM- surfaces to [prevent evapora- 
tion. 

Frost. It has al\va>s Ihhmi i-eeogni/.od that forest t-over pro\eiUs 
frosts. ■riu\v are less fre(|uont and U\ss severe^ uiuKm- I'oxer. which is the 
roavson why the sheltorwood system must be applied to beech. Without 
the top story (he beech siv«llings would bo frost -killed. In 1912 Tuif"* 
proNCil that thi^ fort\st co\im- prt^wMUcd damage from late frosts and 
slunved that in the State forost of Amance (^Mmu-the-et-Mosi^lle'" oak 

« IhitTol, Vol. 1. pp. 4r)-(>7. 

■ li»tliUMioo d\\ Couvort do l;i l''oivt sur I;\ 'IViupcraturo du sol a divoi-^os prot'oiulours. 
par M. !■:. Cuif. Uullotin do In Sooioto dos Soionoos. \W\\ 

•'* .\o(ion d«^ l;i l'\>rot sur l»\s C.oUnvs Tardivo;*. par M. V.. Cnii. Auualos do la Soionoo 
Agrvmomiquo fraiKaise ot otrangoro. Sopt.. \9V2. 



WATER LEVEL 21 

plantations after cutting were badly frosted two y(;ars out of three, while 
the plantations under scattered seed trees were not damaged. 

Th(! frost penetrates the soil about one-half as far in the forest as on the 
outsider According to four experiments (quoted by Huffel) the average 
soil d(^ptli of frost outside; the forest was 17 inches, while inside the ground 
was frozen only to the depth of 11| inches. 

HaiL — Hailstorms are less frequent in the forest than outside. Huffel 
(luot(!s Riniker (1881 Die Hagelschage), who says: "In general hailstorms 
stop at the Ijorder of well-stocked mature for(!sts. Both on the; plains and 
in the mountains one often sees hailstorms cut in two or divided when 
they pass above; wooded stands . . . small coppice would not do 
this." France; had studied the effect of hailstorms on forests and vice 
verna, but by the decree of January 20, 1892, the work was discontinued 
and no d(!cisive results were obtained. Jacquot notes the; fact that of the 
e;igliteen departments where hail does the most damage fourteen are the 
least forested. 

Humidity and Rainfall. — HuffeP says that "the relative humidity 
of the air is greater under a stand than in the open, not, as one would sup- 
pose, because the atmosphere of the forest holds more vapor, but because 
it stanels at a lowe;r te;inperature and is nearer its saturation point." 
Ace;ording to Fautrat's e;xpe;riments in the Ermonville Forest in 1876 the 
air under the stands showed 7 per cent to 12 per cent greater moisture 
conte;nt than in the open. 

Frene;h foresters believe that forests mean more rainfall and, as Huffel 
puts it, "The rain increases according to the progress of forestation," and 
"it rains more, all things being equal, in the center of a large stand than 
on its border, and more on the border than a few mile^s away, that the 
difference appears to be independent of the season of the year, but is 
slightly greate'r eluring rainy ye;ars and less during a drought." The 
Fi-e'iie-h viewpoint is given more fully under "Springs" (in the Appendix, 
p. 301), but French statistics collected near Nancy are at least significant. 
If the; rainfall (a) in the; forest is representee! })y 100, the rainfall (6) near 
the; fore;st anel (c) we;ll outside would, on the average, be (6) 93.3 per cent 
ariel (c) 70.5 pe^r cent. It is at least safe to assume that forest tends to 
incre>ase; rnJiifaH. 

Water Level. — Fxpe'riments ^^ show that the water level the year 
lound is unquestionably lower in the forests than in openings, and that 
there are smaller fluctuations in the water level in the fore^sts than else- 

" Vol. I, pp. 67-81, especially p. 75. It should be stated here that the theory that 
forests increase rainfall (ex(!ej)t under rare circumstances) is not accepted by American 
meteorologists. 

1" E. Henry and A. Tolsky. L(>s Forets de Plainc ct Ics Eaux 8outerraines. Annales 
de la Science Agronomique frane^aise et ctrangere, 1902-03. 



22 THE ROLE OF FORESTS 

where. The level is lower under a mature stand than in young growth, 
the differences being greater in a dry than in a wet climate. Where there 
is a great deal of rainfall the difference may not exceed 9 or 10 inches. 
Henry's observations at Nancy (see Appendix, p. 379) confirmed these 
conclusions (about 1 foot difference) and De Lapasse now cites proof on a 
large scale. It was already proved that surface water in the Landes and 
Gironde had dried up, after extensive areas had been sown, planted, and 
drained, in the Nineteenth Century, but it was not until 1917 that proof 
was secured that if these forests were cut the water level would rise again. 
This has now been proved in the forests of Porge (Gironde) where 8,649 
acres were clear-cut during the period from 1904 to 1911; where 5,436 
acres were clear-cut in the forest of Solferino (Landes) during the period 
from 1905 to 1911; and where 1,236 acres were clear-cut in the forest of 
Soulac. In the latter case the timber was 65 years old; the felling began 
in 1912 and was finished in 1914. According to accurate data secured by 
Conservateur de Lapasse the former water level at Soulac was 3.3 feet 
below the floor of the local church. At the end of 1916 the water began 
to flood the chapels to the depth of 2 inches and on January 6, 1917, the 
water flooded the central nave and the church itself to a depth of 6 inches 
and the chapels to a depth of 19 inches. In the same locality (Soulac) " 
the water level of the wells rose 27| inches; the local hotel cellars, for- 
merly dry, had standing water to a depth of 8 inches. According to de 
Lapasse this is proof positive that clear cutting these mature pine forests 
has materially raised the water level. Such a conclusion is of immense 
importance in connection with drainage problems. 

Springs.^- — According to Huffel, ground in a forest is better watered 
from the atmosphere than are the bordering plains. This difference is 
greater in winter than in summer — may be 20 per cent more. In the 
mountains forests unquestionably diminish run-off and bring about a 
greater infiltration of water which may ultimately feed springs. This is 
due not only to the obstacles which trees, roots, and litter present to 
prevent run-off, but also to the greater porosity of the forest soil and to 
the fact that snow melts slower under forest cover. Both French and 
Russian experiments have proved, however, that the water level in the 
forest on level ground is about one foot lower than in the fields. On the 
other hand, the variation in water level is less in the forest; the infiltra- 
tion is slower; in other words, the forest is a regulator of water levels (as 
with temperature). Huffel concludes that forests increase precipitation, 
retain a part of the rainfall on branches and return it to the air directly, 

" L'Influence de la Foret sur le Regime des Eaux a Soulac, pp. 1-8, M. de Lapasse, 
1917. 

'^ See Appendix, p. 361, for a more detailed discussion of this subject, as presented by 
Huffel. 



HEALTH, RECREATION, AND BEAUTY 23 

decrease evaporation, favor infiltration in the mountains and may or may 
not favor it on level ground in cold or temperate climates, yet he concludes 
that "Nevertheless, it must be observed that springs are only numerous 
and important in mountain regions, and that there the forests are favor- 
able to them." 

Floods, Avalanches, and Erosion. — No one can read Chapter VII 
" Control of Erosion in the Mountains," without becoming convinced that 
forests lessen the intensity of floods and avalanches and largely decrease 
erosion and the formation of "torrents." 

Health, Recreation, and Beauty. — The French ^^ claim that the 
forests have exerted a beneficial effect on the health of mankind. Life in 
the forest is especially beneficial in various nervous diseases. In India 
there is less cholera in the forest regions than in plains. In the forest of 
Haguenau there was less disease in the middle of the last century while 
the cholera epidemic was raging in Europe proper. The leaves of trees 
seem to filter the air and forests are so-called "reservoirs of pure air." 
Forest soil is especially unfavorable to the development of microbes. In 
the Landes, after the sand dunes were reclaimed, the birth rate rose and 
the death rate fell; in 1878 Trelat reported that the fever had practically 
disappeared in those regions. "The forests furnish pretty places for the 
invalid as well as corners of recreation . . . this need of the beauti- 
ful is deep rooted in our very nature." Fontainebleau, Compiegne, 
Grande Chartreuse, and Rudhn are famous recreation forests in France, 
but there are many others. One might say that every State forest 
region is a recreation ground for the French people. The forests around 
Nice, the Vosges near Gerardmer, and almost the entire Alps and Pyre- 
nees are visited annually by thousands. One might almost say that 
without its forests France would not be worth living in. Broilliard ^^ in 
1911, toward the end of a life spent in the National Forest Service, speaks 
of the forest as "poetry and perfume of the earth." He says that the 
tree gives the forest its charm, since it is found in a thousand forms on the 
slopes, in clumps, in battalions, on the borders, near small openings, and 
even around the former Roman Camp at Morey. The old trees act as 
protectors of the species. In his old age he still can dream of the pretty 
paths, openings, undergrowth of varying aspects at different seasons, 
summer tranquility, autumn fruits, and sombre lines. Huffel claims 
that "the beauty of our forests is an object of public utiHty." 

On June 29, 1899, Daubree ruled that since "the Federal and communal 
forests often contain famous trees, because of historical or legendary in- 
terest or because of their grandeur or exceptional size, such trees belong 
to the aesthetic wealth of France. They add to the beauty of the land- 
's Economie Forestiere, Vol. I, pp. 199-206. 
1^ Beautes de la Foret, par Ch. Broilliard, 1911. 



24 THE r6le of forests 

scape, they bring visitors into the regions where without them they would 
stay away. Wc must love and appreciate our forests. The local people 
have a real attachment for these evidences of a bygone age and see them 
disappear with regret. I attach great importance to this and they 
should be constantly protected by the Forest Service. They should 
never, under any pretext, be included in the cut as long as they show 
signs of life." 

Literature and Ajrto — Naturally the forest has stamped its mark on 
French literature. Russeau spent much of his time in France and did 
much to make the forests popular. Chateaubriand drew wonderful 
pictures of American forests but they were not very real; they were more 
the product of his imagination. Lamertine was a great admirer of the 
French forests and La Fontaine was the son of a professional forester. 
Wilham Shenstone, who flourished in England in 1760, was undoubtedly 
influenced by his knowledge of the French forests. 

It is well recognized that all forms of art are founded on nature. Some 
persons believe that the gothic arch was suggested by the arcades of the 
forest. In painting, almost every landscape owes much to the color and 
shape of trees. Of the earlier French painters Claude shows most love of 
foliage, but few of his pictures look as if he had painted them in the 
woods. In every European forest the trees are so dense that it is difficult 
to paint modern forests. In the words of a Frenchman, "You foresters 
should think of this and not only space the trees, since then and then only 
may the carefully tended forests become useful to the artist as well as to 
the lumberman." Diaz was a man who spent most of his time in the 
woods. The Br^bigan school painted woods more or less; but Corot 
(hke Claude) had no use for a "regular forest." What he wanted was a 
group of trees for the purpose of composition. 

While some of these French claims regarding forest influences may be 
questioned by the scientist, yet no one familiar with the history of forest 
economics can question for a moment the statement that no nation can 
afford to destroy its forests because their direct and indirect benefits have 
an increasingly important influence on national efficiency. 



CHAPTER III 
FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

Physical and Climatic Features — Industry (p. 25). Area and Topography, 
Climate, Agriculture, Other Industries, Water Power, Commerce, Government. 

Forest Regions (p. 29). Broad Divisions, Plains, Parisienne Zone, Gironde Zone, 
Provengale Zone, Mountains, Vosges Zone, Jura Zone, Alps Zone, Central Plateau 
Zone, Pyrenees Zone, Some Mountain Forests in Detail, Vosges, Alps, Pyrenees. 

Important Forest Species (p. 40). Acreage and Distribution, Pedunculate Oak, 
Sessile Oak, Beech, Hornbeam, Holm Oak, Cork Oak, Silver Fir, Scotch Pine, Maritime 
Pine, Norway Spruce, European Larch, Aleppo Pine, Exotics, Use of Exotics. (See 
Appendix, p. 387, for data on species.) 

PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC FEATURES — INDUSTRY i 

Area and Topography. — France is a western country in western 
Europe, hexagonal in form, bounded northwest by the North Sea, Strait 
of Dover (Pas-de-Calais) and the EngHsh Channel (La Manche) ; west by 
the Atlantic Ocean; southwest by Spain; southeast by the Mediterranean; 
east by Italy, Switzerland, and Germany; northeast by Germany, Luxem- 
burg, and Belgium. From north to south its length is about 600 miles, 
measuring from Dunkirk to the Col de Falgueres; its breadth from east 
to west is 528 miles, from the Vosges to Cape Saint Mathieu at the ex- 
tremity of Brittany. The total area is estimated at 207,170 square 
miles, including the island of Corsica, which comprises 3,367 square 
miles. The coast line of France extends for 384 miles on the Mediter- 
ranean, 700 on the North Sea, the Strait of Dover, and the Channel, and 
865 on the Atlantic. The country has the advantage of being separated 
from its neighbors by natural barriers of great strength over the greater 
part of its frontier, the Pyrenees forming a powerful bulwark on the 
southwest, the Alps on the southeast, and the Jura and the greater por- 
tion of the Vosges Mountains on the east. The frontier generally follows 
the crest hne of these ranges. Germany possessed both slopes of the 
Vosges north of Mont Donon, from which point the northeast boundary 
is conventional and unprotected by nature. France is geographically 
remarkable for its possession of great natural and historical highways 
between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. The one following 

1 These data are furnished by the service geographique de I'armee, except where 
otherwise noted. See Appendix, p. 495, for data on Alsace-Lorraine, now restored to 
France. 

25 



26 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

the depression between the Central Plateau and the eastern mountains 
by way of the valleys of the Rhone and Saone, traverses the Cote d'Or 
hills and so gains the valley of the Seine; the other skirting the southern 
base of the Cevennes, reaches the ocean by way of the Garonne Valley. 
Another natural highway traversing the lowlands to the west of the 
Central Plateau unites the Seine basin with that of the Garonne. 

Climate. — The north and northwest of France bear a great resem- 
blance, both in temperature and produce, to the south of England, rain 
occurring frequently and the country being consequently suited for 
pasture. The rains are less frequent in the interior but when they do 
occur are much heavier, so there is much less difference in the annual rain- 
fall there as compared with the rest of the country than in the number of 
rainy days. The annual rainfall of the whole of France averages about 
32 inches; the precipitation is greatest along the Atlantic seaboard and in 
the elevated regions of the interior. It attains over 60 inches in the basin 
of the Adour (71 inches at the western extremity of the Pyrenees), and 
nearly as much in the Vosges, Morvan, Cevennes, and parts of the Central 
Plateau. The zone of level country extending from Rheims and Troyes 

to Angers and Poitiers with the ex- 
ception of the Loire Valley and the' 
Brie, receives less than 24 inches of 
rain annually (Paris about 23 inches), 
as also does the Mediterranean coast 
west of Marseilles. 

The prevailing winds, mild and 
humid, are west winds from the At- 
lantic. Continental climatic influ- 
ences make themselves felt in the 
east wind which is frequent in winter 
and in the east of France, while the 
Mistral, a violent wind from the 
northwest, is characteristic of the 
Fig. 1 (after Jolyet).— The black areas Mediterranean region. The local 
represent rainfall of over 24 inches, the climates ^ of France may be grouped 
hatched area 16 to 23 inches, and the dot- i .i <• n • i • 

,, Qiir-u T-u 4.- e under the lollowmg seven designa- 

ted areas 8 to 15 inches, the portions oi . ° . ° 

France left blank represent summer tem- tions: (1) Sequan climate, charac- 
peratures of over 68° F. terizing the Seine basin and northern 

France, with a mean temperature of 
50° F., the winters being cold and the summers mild. (2) Breton cli- 
mate, with a mean temperature of 51° F., the winters being mild and 
summers temperate; it is characterized by west and southwest winds and 
2 Based on the six Ecological zones proposed by Dr. Mayr of Munich, the Nancy 
(Traite Pratique de Sylviculture, 1916, Jolyet, pp. 414-418) school recognizes the fol- 




OTHER INDUSTRIES 27 

by frequent fine rains. (3) Girondin climate, characterizing Bordeaux, 
Agen, Pau, etc., having a mean temperature of 53.6° F., with mild winters 
and hot summers; the prevailing wind is from the northwest ; the average 
rainfall about 28 inches. (4) Auvergne climate, comprising the Ceven- 
nes. Central Plateau, Clermont, Limoges, and Rodez; mean temperature 
51.8° F., with cold winters and hot summers. (5) Vosges climate, in- 
cluding Epinal, Mezieres, and Nancy, having a mean temperature of 
48.2° F., with long and severe winters and hot and rainy summers. (6) 
Rhone climate, experienced by Lyons, Chalon, Macon, and Grenoble; 
mean temperature 5L8° F., with cold and wet winters and hot summers; 
the prevailing winds are north and south. (7) Mediterranean climate, 
at Valence, Nimes, Nice, and Marseilles; mean temperature 57.5° F., 
with mild winters and almost rainless summers. 

Agriculture. — Of the 39,000,000 population some 17,000,000 depend 
upon agriculture for a livelihood, though only about 6,500,000 are engaged 
in work on the land. The cultivable land occupies some 195,000 square 
miles, or about 94 per cent of the total area. Of this, 171,000 square 
miles are cultivated. There are besides 12,300 square miles of unculti- 
vable area covered by lakes, rivers, towns, etc.; only 37,672 square miles 
are in forests (241.2 million acres). While wheat and wine constitute the 
staples of French agriculture, the distinguishing characteristic is the 
variety of its products. Cereals occupy about one-third of the cultivated 
area. For the production of wheat, in which France is self-supporting, 
French Flanders, the Seine basin, notably Beauce and Brie, and the 
regions bordering on the lower course of the Loire and the upper course 
of the Garonne are the chief areas. Rye is grown in the poor agricul- 
tural territories of the Central Plateau and in the Parisian region. Maize 
covers considerable areas in Landes, Basses-Pyrenees, and other south- 
western departments. 

Other Industries. — In France, as in other countries, the development 
of machinery, whether run by steam, water power, or other native forces, 

lowing zones as occurring in France: 

(1) Laurentum, with minimum temperature of — 10°C., where "everywhere orna- 
mental shrubs with persistent leaves can be cultivated in the gardens." 

(2) Castanetimi, with occasional temperatures down to —25° C, where the mari- 
time pine and chestnut can be grown. 

(3) Carpinetum, with temperature down to —30° C, where there are drought, hot 
summers, but dangerous frosts and extremes of cold. This includes most of the rich 
Normandy forests. 

(4) Mountains, broadly speaking (for the same exposure) for each 3.3 feet of altitude 
the average temperature diminishes 1.2° C. and the rainfall increases 10 per cent. Ex- 
ceptions occur, depending on the slope of the mountain and on the latitude. Typical 
of the mountain climate are abrupt changes in temperature, severe frosts coupled with 
intense heat (radiations solaires) during the day. 



28 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

has played a great part in the promotion of industry. With the exception 
of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhone, and Rhone, the chief industrial depart- 
ments of France are to be found in the north and northeast of the country. 
The department of the Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs, which has 
the largest manufacturing population, is largely occupied with the manu- 
facture of dress, milhnery, and articles of luxury (perfumery, etc.), but it 
plays the leading part in almost every great branch of industry with the 
exception of spinning and weaving. The typically industrial region of 
France is the department of the Nord, the seat of the woolen industry, 
but also prominently concerned in other textile industries, in metal work, 
and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which is supplied by its 
coal fields. 

Water Power. — France is relatively poor in coal, and even in ordinary 
times must import a large amount for use by its factories. Since Ger- 
many's destruction of the coUieries of the north, which have supphed 
about three-fourths of all the coal mined in France, the situation is made 
difficult even with the Sarre basin. Fortunately for France, she is rich 
in hydrauHc power. The water power is estimated at nine to ten milhon 
horse power. Of the European countries only Norway and Sweden 
possess a larger amount of available hydraulic power. Still more for- 
tunate for France, most of her water power is to be found in the South, 
free from war damage, particularly in the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Ceven- 
nes, and the Jura, although some water power is available in the Vosges 
and the Central Plateau. During the war the water power development 
in France has received a tremendous stimulus. Many new factories have 
been built in which the motive power is electricity, generated by hydraulic 
force, for the manufacture of machinery, munitions, and other supplies 
necessary for the army. The manufacture of products necessary for 
military purposes has not only absorbed all the power which at first was 
left unutilized because of the discontinuance of a number of factories en- 
gaged in the production of ordinary commodities, but it was soon found 
necessary to increase the available water power. Thus several of the 
Pyrenees water power companies have raised the dam of a lake which 
served as a reservoir by seven feet and thus increased its reserve in water by 
1,300,000 cubic meters, and obtained a proportional increase in the avail- 
able water power. Several water power establishments in the Alps and in 
the Pyrenees have entirely changed their equipment and adapted their 
factories for the manufacture of products needed by the Government. 
The Government has rushed the completion of a number of factories in 
the course of construction and has taken over in the Central Plateau 
several waterfalls for the development of water power. During the war 
the Government increased the available hydraulic power by at least 
60,000 horse power. The Government not only sought to develop water 



BROAD DIVISIONS 29 

power for the manufacture of war necessities on its own initiative, but 
also secured the cooperation of private hydrauhc companies. This de- 
velopment will probably decrease the use of coal and fuel wood during the 
next decade. 

Commerce. — Being in the main a self-supporting country, France 
carries on most of her trade within her own borders and ranks below 
Great Britain, Germany, and the United States in volume of exterior 
trade. 

Government. — The principles upon which the French constitution is 
based are representative government (by two chambers), manhood 
suffrage, responsibility of ministers, and irresponsibility of the head of the 
State. France is divided into 86 administrative departments (including 
Corsica), or 87 if the territory of Belfort, a remnant of the Haut-Rhin de- 
partment, be included. These departments are subdivided into 362 
arrondissements, 2,911 cantons, and 36,222 communes. (See Alsace- 
Lorraine, p. 495.) 

FOREST REGIONS 

Broad Divisions. — The forest regions of France may be divided into 
two broad divisions — the plains and the mountains. As might be sup- 
posed, conifers predominate in the mountains and the broadleaf species 
in the plains. In this latter region there are ravines and hills but the 
maximum altitude does not exceed 1,970 feet. The winter season lasts 
4 to 5 months, the vegetative season 7 to 8 months. In the mountains 
the winter lasts 7 to 8 months and, at altitudes of 5,900 to 6,560 feet, the 
snow remains until June 15, and begins to fall shortly after the middle of 
September. There is no spring or fall — • only winter and summer. 
Naturally this results in rapid growth with very regular rings, as opposed 
to the somewhat irregular growth in the plains forests owing to the varia- 
tions of climate during the growing season. The forest divisions of 
France (as distinguished by Boppe) are: 

1. Plains — 

(o) Parisienne: (1) West, (2) Center, (3) East. 

(b) Gironde: (1) Oaks of Adour, (2) Landes, Gascoyne. 

(c) Provengale. 

2. Mountains — 

(a) Vosges: (1) Lorraine plains, (2) Basses-Vosges, (3) Hautes-Vosges, (4) (5) see text. 
(6) Jura: (1) First plateau, (2) Second plateau, 1,640 to 1,968 feet, (3) Third plateau, 
2,625 to 2,953 feet (4) Haute-Jura. 

(c) Alps: (1) North, (2) South. 

(d) Central Plateau: (1) North, (2) South. 

(e) Pyrenees: (1) East, (2) Central, (3) West. 



30 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

Plains. — From the foregoing it is seen that the plains forests may be 
divided into three general zones: (1) Parisienne; (2) Gironde; (3) 
Provengale. 

Parisienne Zone. — The Parisienne Zone includes more than half of 
France, and the forest wealth is composed of broadleaf trees except where 
conifers have been artificially introduced. Hornbeam is a characteristic 
species, sessile oak and pedunculate oak the most numerous. Beech 
abounds but it is not necessarily typical of the region because it extends 
into the mountain zones. The Federal administration has introduced 
such species as ash, maple, and elm to a considerable extent. Less 
valuable species typical of this zone are the willows, limes, and poplars. 
The annual rainfall averages 27.5 inches, most of it occurring in the sum- 
mer. Droughts are rare and on the whole the climate may be termed 
exceedingly favorable for tree growth. It is partly for this reason that 
natural regeneration of such species as oak is comparatively simple in 
France while almost unattainable in many parts of Germany. The pre- 
vailing wind is west. The best high forests in France that produce ex- 
ceedingly valuable oak logs are found in this zone. There are, of course, 
coppice and coppice-under-standarcls. 

This general region can be subdivided into three parts: (1) West, 
which includes such forests as Fontainebleau, d'Orleans, and Montargis. 
This Hmited area is bounded by the valleys of the Perche and Bretagne. 
The cHmate is exceedingly mild and humid. (2) Center, including the 
Sologne, where a moist silicious soil has been partly deforested. This 
includes the Champagne region where the tree growth is quite ordinary. 
(3) East, which includes the Argonne, the Langres Plateau, the Plains of 
Lorraine, Franche-Comte, and Bourgogne. Here 25 per cent of the area 
is forested and most of it is in coppice-under-standards, although con- 
versions are the order of the day where soil will permit. 

Gironde Zone. — The second important zone — the Gironde — fol- 
lows the ocean from Bayonne to the Loire, and includes two subdivisions : 
(1) the oaks of the Adour, and (2) the maritime pine of the Landes- 
Gascoyne. The important species are maritime pine, occidental oak, 
and pyrean oak. The sessile oak is almost entirely lacking, and the holm 
oak is found chiefly on limestone soils. The maritime pine, which now 
reproduces naturally but originally was estabhshed by artificial means 
(see pp. 182), is the species of the Landes-Gascoyne. It grows on pure 
sand and has increased the value of land worthless for agriculture many 
thousands per cent. 

Provencale Zone. — The third important zone — • Provengale — is dry 
and hot and borders the Mediterranean between Nice and Port Vendres. 
The region is indented by the Maritime Alps and the Pyrenees at each 
extremity and extends up the Rhone as far as Valence. The important 



JURA ZONE 31 

species are the holm oak, white oak, aleppo pine. On the sihcious soils of 
the Maures and the Esterel maritime pine and cork oak form the predomi- 
nant stand with a thick undergrowth of heather. In this region trees 
rarely attain large size, but yield good fuel charcoal and tanbark. The 
secondary revenue from truffles is in places as much as $38.60 per acre. 
The prevalent northeast wind, known as the "mistral," is a source of 
danger during the fire season. Tliis is especially significant since in this 
region there is much less rain than in the Parisienne. 

Mountains. — The mountains are divided into five main zones: (1) 
Vosges, (2) Jura, (3) Alps, (4) Central Plateau, (5) Pyrenees. 

Vosges Zone. — The Vosges begins at 1,150 feet elevation. It is rich in 
forests; fir, beech, and spruce are the dominant species at certain points; 
oak and hornbeam disappear completely toward the summits. The spruce 
continues with the fir to the highest altitudes. Much Scotch pine has 
been artificially introduced. The zone extends to a maximum altitude 
of 4,590 feet, but the average limit of tree growth is at 4,100 feet. Be- 
tween the maximum and minimum altitudes five types of stands have 
been distinguished: (1) the Lorraine plain; here coppices of hornbeam, 
oak, and poor quality birch have led to an increase in the per cent of beech 
in order to improve the soil. Where, however, the conditions are ex- 
ceedingly bad, Scotch pine is being introduced. (2) Basses- Vosges ; here 
silver fir is the typical species. (3) Hautes- Vosges ; on account of the 
granitic formation it is well watered, but the forest area is much cut up 
by farms and grazing lands. Here are found a number of protection 
forests. Two less important subdivisions are: (4) where on the south 
slope toward the Franche-Comte plains the schists give place to syenites 
and porphyries and the fir is replaced by the oak. There was formerly a 
good deal of coppice alternating with field crops in this region and there 
is still much simple coppice grown for bark production. The fifth (5) 
(la Vosge), also relatively unimportant, is apparently an island of varie- 
gated sandstone where high forests of oak and beech predominate on 
the fine-grained sand. 

Jura Zone. — Exceedingly rich mountain forests are found in the 
Jura. They are less extensive than in the Vosges but much richer. In 
the Vosges the soil is silicious, while in the Jura it is calcareous. The im- 
portant commercial Jura species are silver fir and Norway spruce. In 
this region there are four subdivisions, based on altitude: (1) The first 
plateau really belongs more to the plain than to the mountain region, but 
fir has been introduced. (2) In the second region, with an altitude of 
1,640 to 1,970 feet, the fir is mixed with spruce. The best fir forests of 
France are found on the rich soil above this first escarpment on Jurassic 
formation. The forests of Levier and La Joux (Fig. 2) are world famous. 



32 



FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 



(3) In the third division ^ the average elevation is 2,620 to 2,950 feet but 
extends to 3,940 feet. The chmate is severe and the production less than 
in the lower zone. After windfall, provided insects can be kept out, the 
soil usually seeds naturally to a good stand. With fir, spruce, and beech 
there is some sycamore. The rainfall averages more than 39 inches 
a year. The forest of Risoux is typical. (4) The Haute- Jura, like the 
Haute- Vosges, is chiefly valuable for grazing, such as is found in the forest 
of La Dole. 




Fig. 2. — The richest silver fir (with spruce) stands in France are found in the 
State forest of La Joux (Jura). Note the clear boled stand from natural regeneration. 
During the war the Canadians cut heavily in this superb forest. 

Alps Zone. — The third great mountain subdivision, the Alps, ex- 
tends from the Lake of Geneva to the Mediterranean — from the hmit of 
tree growth to the sea level. In the lower mountains, up to 1,970 to 2,130 
feet, one finds such typical plains species as the white oak, holm oak, 

3 Jolyet claims the third Jura plateau is a myth and prefers the term "Hautes chalnes 
du Jura" to "Haute-Jura" for the fourth subdivision. 



CENTRAL PLATEAU ZONE 



33 



chestnut, and Scotch pine. At higher elevations there is mountain pine, 
larch, and cembric pine. (See Fig. 3.) This latter species extends to the 
Hmit of tree growth, although larch is considered the most valuable of the 
Alpine species. The most notable stands are the beech of Vercors, the 
spruce of Tarentaise, the mountain pine of Embrunais, the fir of such rich 
valleys as the Var, and the larch of Briangonnais, of Queyras, and of 
Comte de Nice. French foresters divide the Alps into two regions: (1) 
North Alps, which extends as far as Pelvoux, The valleys face the 




Fig. 3. — Larch and oembria pine at an altitude of 7,050 feet (north exposure) 
in the Canton of Melezet, communal forest of Villarodin-Bourget. The soU must be 
worked to facilitate regeneration. 

north and the stand is fairly intact. The chief species are beech, fir, 
spruce, while larch is rare. (2) In the South Alps, from Pelvoux to the 
Mediterranean, there are southerly exposures and a variable and severe 
chmate. Here is found the greatest damage from torrents. There are, 
however, good stands of fir and spruce, while the larch is exceedingly im- 
portant. There are also aspen, Scotch pine, and chestnut. Consider- 
able damage from grazing is experienced. 

Central Plateau Zone. — The Central Plateau includes the mountains 
of Morvan, where beech is the important species, and the Cevennes, with 
its stands of Austrian pine. 



34 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

Pyrenees Zone. — The fifth and last mountain zone, to my mind per- 
haps tlie most attractive for the traveler, has been divided into two 
divisions: (1) The Eastern Pyrenees and (2) the Central and Western 
Pyrenees which is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. The dividing hne 
between this zone and the eastern zone is the basin of the Aude and the 
Ariege. In the eastern zone the climate is more hke the Maritime Alps 
but moister, the rains being less torrential, however, and consequently 
the floods are not so dangerous. The chief species are fir, beech, and 
mountain pine. In the Department of the Aude the fir is almost as good 
as in the Vosges and Jura. Here the mountain pine does not form pure 
dense stands but is found in mixture with spruce and larch. There has 
been considerable overgrazing. A typical forest area is the Montague 
Noire. In the second division (central and western) there are irregular 
west winds, and there is more rain and better forage. The same species 
are grown as in the eastern division but the stands are denser, with a 
larger percentage of beech mixed with the conifers. Scotch pine largely 
replaces the mountain pine. Typical forests are Liichon, Bareges, and 
Cauterets. 

Some Mountain Forests in Detail. — Of all the forest zones or regions 
of France, those of the four great mountain areas — Vosges, Jura, Alps, 
and Pyrenees — are most interesting to the American forester. For a 
more intimate view of local conditions in the Jura reference is made to the 
Appendix where the essentials of a working plan for the forest of Grande 
Cote is reproduced. Let us consider in greater detail some of these 
mountain regions. 

Vosges. — Before the Vosges ^ were acquired by the State they be- 
longed to the Due de Lorraine, to lesser nobles, and to various abbeys. 
Since they were largely maintained for fuel and for shooting it is not sur- 
prising that a great deal of forested area still remains — 37 per cent of the 
total land acreage being now in forest. A total of 520,041 acres of forest 

is divided as follows: 

Acres 

State 139,522 

Communal 291,563 

Private 88,956 

Total 520,041 

Considering the region as a whole, and separating the area of plains 
forests from the Vosges forests proper, the species, in order of importance, 
are: Beech, 60 per cent; oak, 30 per cent; miscellaneous species, 10 per 
cent. Of the strictly mountain area the species on the Vosges sandstone 
in order of importance are: Fir, 75 per cent; beech and miscellaneous 

^ Sommaire sur los Forets domaniales du Departement des Vosges. Mongenot. 



VOSGES 35 

species, 18 per cent; Scotch pine, 6 per cent; spruce, 1 per cent; on the 
mountain granite formation fir comprises 51 per cent; spruce, 18 per cent; 
pine, 1 per cent; and beech, 30 per cent. It is clear then that in the 
mountains fir is the important species, and mature, fully stocked stands 
yield from 350 to as high as 1,000 cubic meters (12,360 to 35,314 cubic 
feet) per hectare; about 26,000 to 74,000 feet board measure per acre. 
In the so-called plains forests of the Vosges the product in logs is only 30 
per cent, due to the larger proportion of broadleaf trees, while in the 
mountains sawlogs ("work wood") reach 55 per cent of the total pro- 
duction. On 20,000 hectares (49,420 acres) of coniferous forests the 
average volume from forested hectares was 317 cubic meters (11,194.5 
cubic feet), about 23,000 feet board measure to the acre, and on the vari- 
ous forests included in this average, the average by forests varied from 
196 to 390 cubic meters (6,921.5 to 13,772.5 cubic feet per hectare), or 
about 14,000 to 30,000 feet board measure to the acre. The total average 
yield in cubic meters for the entire Vosges was 245,574 (8,672,200.2 cubic 
feet) in 1870-79; 231,835 (8,187,021.2 cubic feet) for 1880-89; and 314,046 
(11,090,220.4 cubic feet) for 1890-99, these latter yield figures being con- 
siderably above normal owing to increased windfall and the consequently 
forced cut. The price per cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) since 1877 has 
been 1 to 3 francs (19 to 58 cents) higher in the mountains than in the 
Vosges plains, due in part to the larger proportion of logs and to the de- 
creasing demand for hardwood fuel. The average price per cubic meter 
(35.3 cubic feet) taken to the nearest franc for the whole region was 8 
francs ($1.54) in 1871, 16 ($3.09) in 1876, 15 ($2.89) in 1879, 8 ($1.54) in 
1887, 13 ($2.51) in 1898; in 1914 the price had risen to 20 francs ($3.86) 
and in 1918 to 55 francs ($10.61). In the mountain region it is of interest 
that the price for logs on the Vosges sandstone brought 1 to 6 francs 
(19 cents to $1.16) more than for the same class of material on the granite 
formation; it is safe to draw the conclusion that, during 1890-99, the 
price was at least on an average of 5 francs (96 cents) more. The table 
which follows shows the money yield per forested hectare (2.5 acres) in 
even francs (and in dollars per acre) by 10-year periods from 1870 to 1900, 
separately for the mountains and plains forests and averaged for the 
whole region. The figures in parentheses are dollars per acre: 

1870 

Mountains 55($4.24) 

Plains 30(12.32) 

Average 45($3.47) 50(13.85) 55($4.24) 85(16.55) 

The decreasing net values for the plains forests and the increasing 
values of the mountain forests is due to the decreasing price of fuel and 



1880 


1890 


1900 


55($4.24) 
35($2.70) 


65($5.02) 
30 (.12. 32) 


100($7.72) 
45($3.47) 



36 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

the increase in the price of sawlogs. This increase and decrease is typical 
of almost all portions of Europe since the introduction of coal and the 
scarcity of logs of large dimensions. Naturally it should influence the 
silvicultural policy pursued. It means that high forest systems should 
replace coppice and coppice-under-standards whenever local conditions 
permit. The conversion is not always simple from the economic stand- 
point on account of the demand of the communes for a steady revenue. 
Conversions mean increasing the growing stock, an economy which com- 
munes cannot always afford, because of their local needs for wood and 
because of the money returns from auctions of timber which make taxa- 
tion that much less. 

Alps. — According to Huffel ^ the Alps comprise 19,305 square miles, 
one-fifth of which is forested; of this forest area nearly two-thirds is in 
private hands and one-third communal — the remainder State forests, not 
including areas under reforestation. The forests tributary to Nice have 
typified systematic grazing devastation. The basin of the Durance is the 
most devastated because drought has accentuated the evils of overgrazing 
and overcutting, and the torrential rains have completed the damage. 
The Department of the Basses- Alpes is only 18 per cent actually forested 
(26.3 per cent classed as "forest") and on an average produces but one- 
half a cubic meter (17.6 cubic feet) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year for the 
area under "forest"; four-fifths of this production is firewood, equal to 
about one-tenth cord per acre per year. It is only fair to say that most 
of this area belongs to the communes, the State owning only a few refores- 
tation areas. The basin of the Drome and the basin of the Isere and 
Haute-Savoie have favorable climates and soil. The area is in the transi- 
tion zone between the South (dry) Alps and the North (wet) Alps. Of 
217,448 acres of communal forest, half the area is in high forest, a quarter 
in coppice, and the rest blank. During the period 1877 to 1886 it pro- 
duced only 1.9 cubic meters (67.1 cubic feet) per hectare per year, or a 
revenue of 33 francs ($6.37), while the coppice production was 1 cubic 
meter (35.3 cubic feet) or a revenue of 1.27 francs ($0,245), since the fire- 
wood brought but little return — a combined yield of about three-fifths 
of a cord per acre per year. From the reforested areas of this region the 
revenue is as yet nothing. Of the two important Federal forests near 
Gap the forest of Durbon yields 1 cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) or 10 
francs ($1.93) per hectare per year, (77 cents per acre), and the forest of 
Boscodon 2.5 cubic meters (88.3 cubic feet) or 30 francs ($5.79) per year 
($2.32 per acre) . The larch forests of the Alps, Embrunais, and Brian- 
9onnais are considered the most interesting. The forest of Mont- 
Genevre at the source of the Durance, at an altitude of 6,235 to 8,200 feet, 
comprises 2,281 acres of which 1,359 acres are forested. It is a high 
5 ficonomie Forestike, Vol. Ill, pp. 391-397. 



ALPS 37 

forest with a 150-year rotation and includes cembric pine, Scotch pine, 
and larch. In the communal forest of Puy-Saint-Pierre, below Briangon, 
the larch is managed on a 200-year rotation. In the aggregate the larch 
forests of France comprise about 121,000 acres and are treated as regular 
high forests, except when maintained purely for protection purposes, 
when light selection cuttings are made. 

In the Haute-Dauphine there are several Federal forests in good con- 
dition. The best known is the Grande Chartreuse, north of Grenoble. 
Of the total of 10,061 acres 13,343 acres are productive. Before the 
abolishment of the monastery 368 acres were reserved simply as a scenic 
forest. Since the separation of the church from the State this has been 
added to the productive area and is now being conservatively lumbered. 
The rotation is 162 to 225 years. For the period 1865 to 1905 the aver- 
age production for the whole area of this forest was 1.8 cubic meters (53.6 
cubic feet) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year, or 2.2 cubic meters (77.7 cubic 
feet) for the productive areas (120 board feet). The gross revenue for the 
whole forest during this same period was 17 francs ($3.28) per hectare per 
year, or a net of 10.3 francs ($1.99) for the productive area, 20.5 francs 
($3.96) and 12.4 francs ($2.39), equal to $1.58 gross and 96 cents net per 
acre per year. 

The Savoie comprises some 56,833 acres of forests; here the climate is 
considered favorable and it is the best wooded part of the French Alps. 
Six-tenths of the forest area is communal and the State owns but 1,483 
acres — the forest of Belle Vaux above Thonon where the spruce pre- 
dominates. A typical communal forest of this region is that of Vailly 
opposite Lausanne on the Lake of Geneva. At an average altitude of 
3,600 feet spruce is 50 per cent of the stand, beech 29, and fir 21. The 
average revenue, 1886-1902, was 7.17 francs ($1.38) per hectare per year, 
or but 55 cents per acre. 

It is significant that the proportion between fuel and logs is as 211 is to 
110, where, as the working-plans officer says, the proportion ought to be 
as 60 is to 100. 

Another interesting forest in Savoie is in the valley of Fier,^ near the 
little village of Thones, comprising 321 acres. It shows what recovery 
can be made when a forest is properly managed. The growing stock in- 
creased from 54,000 cubic meters (1,906,956 cubic feet) in 1895 to 60,000 
cubic meters (2,118,840 cubic feet) in 1900, notwithstanding the regular 
annual cut. While this forest is considered almost normal to-day, in 
1840 the growing stock had been so reduced that the commune proposed 
to open it to goat grazing, something that is rarely done except in the case 
of brush land. The recovery which this region has made under French 
forest management is a lasting tribute to the foresters of the RepubHc. 
^ Une Jolie Foret. A. Schseffer, pp. 1-4. 



38 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

This region was only ceded by Italy in 1860, and prior to that date the 
forests had been overcut and damaged, the prices were low, and there was 
a large amount of overmature diseased timber. A. Schaeffer, for many 
years chief of working plans, with headquarters at Grenoble, has studied 
the rotation, cutting period, stand per hectare, increment, and financial 
yield before and after past working plan revisions, and has proved that 
the conservative management introduced by the French is successful. 
These forests, classed according to yield production, may be grouped in 
four classes: 

1. Those forests with a yield of over 6 cubic meters (211.9 cubic feet) 
per hectare (2.5 acres) per year. These are found on the sandstones, 
schists, warm calcareous soils, and alluvial soils near the lakes of Geneva, 
Annecy, and Bourget. Such yields are almost comparable with the 
famous Jura and Vosges. 

2. The second- and third-class forests are yields between 4 and 6 
meters (141.3 and 211.9 cubic feet) and between 3, 4, and 2 meters (141.3 
and 70.6 cubic feet) respectively. Here, either the soil or the cHmatic 
conditions are naturally poor producers. Sometimes this intermediate 
yield is due to the mediocre combination of both climate and soil. 

4. The fourth class of forests is where the production is less than 2 
cubic meters. (70.6 cubic feet) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year. These are 
located in the high valleys or rocky slopes where the chmate is severe or 
relatively dry. (See Fig. 4, a and h.) 

Pyrenees. — The forests of the Pyrenees may be differentiated in two 
ways, by geographical location or by zones of altitude. The geographical 
differentiation has already been described. On account of their impor- 
tance and interest to the American forester, it is well worth while to add 
the altitude zones in order to make the regional distribution complete. 

In the first altitude zone, above 3,280 feet, fir and beech are found pure 
and in mixture. Fir predominates in the central and beech in the eastern 
and western Pyrenees. Mountain pine and Scotch pine predominate 
near Mont-Louis. The limit of tree growth is 7,530 feet for mountain 
pine, 6,890 feet for fir, 6,230 feet for beech; usually typical grazing forests 
begin at an altitude of from 5,580 to 5,740 feet; sessile oak reaches 5,085 
feet in the eastern and pedunculate oak 4,593 feet in the western Pyrenees. 

The second zone, 1,640 to 3,280 feet, has beech as the chief species with 
fir and oak as secondary. 

In the third zone, 1,640 to 560 feet, there is oak with beech and chestnut, 
sessile oak in the eastern and pedunculate in the western and central 
Pyrenees. 

The fourth zone, below 660 feet, has the same species as the third zone 
with the addition of holm oak and maritime pine. 



PYREENEES 



39 




.y I 03 



<x> o 







4^ 3 o o fe^.a 



bCH 



_^ S fi^ ?? - 3 



DO- ' 
r- k. ^ bC 






^:3 

O -'OS ^ cs'^ 

S S^^o; g =3 I 
2 ^,-^^ S5 ^ £3 



5 -P ", 



q; 






OJ <p R c2 C-* O 



OT3 
> 



c 



JM 



5 0) o ^ ^-1 -t^ 



5r^ i-r 



^. 



S 3 






c3 ■ 



ssasna^ 



40 



FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 

Acreage and Distribution. — The figures that follow show the propor- 
tionate area stocked with each of the principal species in France in the 
forests under State supervision. These statistics are based on Huff el's 
figures of 1904, corrected proportionately to conform to the official statis- 
tics on total forest area published in 1912 by the Service des Eaux et 
Forets. 

According to these figures, broadleaf trees occupy 77 per cent of the 
area as against 23 per cent for the conifers. There are no accurate figures 
for private forests, nor for communal and institutional forests not under 
State supervision, but Huffel estimates that for all of France the timber 
oaks occupy 35 per cent of the ground, the holm oak 4 per cent, miscella- 
neous broadleaf trees 41 per cent, and the conifers about 20 per cent. 
Table 2 follows: 



TABLE 2. — AREA OCCUPIED BY BROADLEA 


VES AND 


CONIFERS 


Species 


Acres, 
productive forest 


Per cent of total area, 
productive forest 


Oak 


1,796,000 

1,194,000 

717,000 

264,000 

1,053,000 

5,024,000 

455,000 
430,000 
262,000 
178,000 
116,000 
30,000 
54,000 

1,525,000 




27.5 


Beech 


18.2 


Hornbeam 


11.0 


Holm oak 


4.0 


Miscellaneous broadleaves 


16.0 


Fir 


76.7 
7.1 


Scotch pine 


6.5 


Maritime pine 

Spruce 


4.0 

2.7 


Larch 


1.8 


Aleppo pine 


0.4 


Miscellaneous 


0.8 




23.3 


Grand total 


6,549,000 




100.00 







As the foregoing table indicates, the occvu'rence of the various species 
depends chiefly on climatic conditions and the oak is unquestionably by 
far the most important and typical timber species. The timber oaks not 
only occupy 27.5 per cent of the total productive forest area under work- 
ing plans but are also encouraged in regeneration in their fight against 
other species, and in many State forests the oak is grown to unprofitably 
long rotations in order to supply industry with the class of wood which it 
requires. Two important species are the sessile and pedunculate oak; 
they occur in mixture and separately. Oak is found all over France ex- 



ACREAGE AND DISTRIBUTION 41 

cept in the higher mountains and in the regions bordering the Mediterra- 
nean and the Atlantic Ocean. The essential silvicultural characteristic 
of each of these species is given on pp. 387. 

Beech is the second important species and occupies 18.2 per cent of the 
productive forest area. It is found everywhere except in the highest 
mountains, on the Mediterranean, and plains of the southern Atlantic 
coast Hne, including the Gironde, Landes, and Dordogne. The distribu- 
tion of beech is shown in Fig. 5. 

The hornbeam, although it occupies 11 per cent of the productive area, 
is not an important timber species notwithstanding its wide distribution. 
It does not grow to large size and its chief function is to supply fuel and 
to maintain soil conditions. The distribution of hornbeam is shown in 
Fig. 5. 

The holm oak is confined chiefly to the regions not occupied by the 
timber oaks, by beech, and by hornbeam. It is often found in mixture 
with cork oak (whose distribution is given in Fig. 5) and with aleppo 
pine. 

Silver fir occupies 7.1 per cent of the productive forest area and is 
especially adapted to the climate prevailing in northern, eastern, and 
central France, and is a typical species of the Vosges, Jura, Alps, and 
Pyrenees. It reaches its optimum development in the Jura. 

Notwithstanding that Scotch pine occupies 6.5 per cent of the produc- 
tive forest area, it does not grow naturally in level country, but only in 
the mountains of the Vosges, Central Plateau, Alps, and Pyrenees; it has 
not grown naturally in the Jura, since in that department it cannot main- 
tain its struggle for existence on limestone soil. But because of its use 
for forestation it is found in every department in France except ten; it 
forms at least one-tenth the stand of technically administered forests in 
twenty-six departments. 

The maritime. pine commercially is one of the most important timber 
species of France, but is limited to a comparatively small region, as shown 
by Fig. 5. 

Norway spruce is found only in the higher mountain regions of the 
Jura, Vosges, and Alps, and does not grow naturally in the Pyrenees. 
Outside of these mountain regions it is unimportant, since the mild 
climatic conditions of the plains do not favor its growth. 

The larch also is confined even more markedly to the higher mountain 
regions. Its natural habitat is the Alps. 

These five broadleaved species and six conifers are the important trees 
of France. How they are distributed in the different forest regions has 
already been explained. To give a more intimate view of French silvi- 
culture, the writer has included monographs on these principal species. 
The data are not original; much are freely translated from authoritative 



42 



FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 





B — Pyreneenean oak (Chene blanc) 




E — Maritime pine {Pin marUime) F — Aleppo pine {Pin d'alep) 

Fig. 5 (after Jolyet). — Distribution of six important forest trees in France. 

Key: Dominant, ^H; subordinate, ^g |; rare, lUnnnHI; very rare or lack- 



ing, 



USE OF EXOTICS 43 

sources, but it was considered very essential to present the data so as to 
give, as nearly as possible, the French viewpoint on the silvics of each 
important species. In order not to encumber the text these data on 
species are given in the Appendix. 

Exotics. — Jolyet, on the authority of Belgian and French authors, 
cites the following exotics as of possible value in France: 

Red oak (Quercus rubra L.), rapid growth; hardy. 

June oak (Quercus pedunculata, var. tardissima Simonkai), hardy. 

White ash (Fraxinus americana L.), hardy; rapid growth. 

"Parrotia" (Parrotia persica C. A. Meyer), much hke beech but can develop on dry, 
shallow, limestone soils; Carpinetum zone. 

Common walnut (Juglans regia L.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. 

Black walnut {Juglans nigra L.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. 

Butternut; White walnut {Juglans cinerea L.), cabinet wood; a hardier tree; Carpine- 
tum zone. 

Shellbark hickory {Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. 

Mocker nut hickory {Hickoria alba (L.) Britton), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. 

Yellow birch {Betula lutea Michxf.), cabinet wood. 

Black cherry {Prunus serotina Ehrh.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone. 

Aspen {Populus tremuloides Michaux), furnishes soft wood; hardy. 

Yellow linden {Tilia rubra var. euchlora C. Koch), furnishes soft wood; hardy; from 
Crimea. 

Manchurian linden {Tilia mandschurica Ruprecht and Maximovicz), furnishes soft 
wood; hardy. 

Honoki; Japanese magnolia {Magnolia hypoleuca Siebold and Zuccarini), furnishes 
soft wood; rapid growth. 

Yellow poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera L.), furnishes soft wood; Carpinetum zone. 

Locust {Robinia pseudacacia L.), a durable hard wood; hardy. 

Tree of heaven; Ailanthus {Ailantus glandulosa Desfontaines), rapid growth and 
hardy; near ocean in Laurentum zone, and in Castanetum zone. 

Chinese "cedar"; Cedrela {Cedrela sinensis A. Jussieu), quality of ash but hardier; 
near ocean in Laurentum zone, and in Castanetum zone. 

Keaki {Zelkova acuminata Planchon), wood like elm; requires fresh soil; Carpinetum 
zone. 

Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poit) Britton), rapid growth; hardy. 

White fir {Abies concolor (Gord) Parry), rapid growth; hardy. 

Oriental spruce {Picea orientalis Carr.), drought enduring; comes from Asia Minor 
between Trebizond and Erzerum. 

Lodgepole pine {Pinus contorta Loudon), hardy for "Karst" soils. 

White pine {Pinus strobus L.), rapid grower; hardy; liable to borers and parasites. 

Norway pine; Red pine {Pinus resinosa Alton), rapid grower; hardy; free from insect 
danger. 

Use of Exotics. — Certain conclusions can be reached regarding the 
introduction of exotic species: 

(1) Exotic species are almost always uncertain, even after they have 
reached the sapling or pole age. Local species should be favored. 

(2) If exotics are used they should never be employed on a large scale 



44 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES 

until they have been thoroughly tested over a rotation under similar 
conditions. 

(3) When employed there must be a definite justification for not using 
local trees — 

(a) Quality of wood (not contained in local species) required by na- 
tional wood industries. 

(6) Rapid growth or hardiness under adverse soil or cHmatic conditions. 

France is poor in tree species (see p. 40) and particularly needs cabinet 
woods and woods easy to work, like j^ellow poplar. She requires trees 
hard}^ on unfavorable sites, but nevertheless, because of the high cost of 
foreign tree seeds the use of exotics, even though of proven worth, is 
rarely practicable. There are, of course, exceptions to this fundamental 
rule — notably Scotch pine, whose range has been increased largely by 
artificial means. Too often the forester may be tempted to use an exotic 
which has been grown successfully in botanical gardens. This is poor 
practice and should not be followed. Beware of exotics, because they 
rarely succeed and are subject to insect and fungous damage! 



CHAPTER IV 
FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 

Private Forest Owners (p. 45). Ownership, System of Cutting, and Production, 
Forest Areas and Per Cent of Species by Departments, Analysis of General Statistics, 
Management Statistics, Costs of Administration, Statistics of Fir Stands in the Jura, 
Statistics for Levier. 

Private Forest Owners. — About one-tenth the French forest area 
belongs to the State, two-tenths to communes and pubHc institutions, 
and seven-tenths to private owners. There is an incredible number of 
sfnall owners, a fact never before noted by Enghsh or American writers. 
In 1912 there were 1,538,526 private forest owners ^ (excluding the com- 
munes, which are really groups of small joint owners). There were fully 
1,446,200 owners with less than 25 acres, only 82,285 owners with forests 
of 25 to 1,253 acres, and but 742 owners of forests over 1,235 acres. Take 
any department at random: In the Puy-de-D6me 101,510 acres out of 
the total area are in the hands of 32,684 owners, each owning less than 25 
acres, and there are only 628 owners who possess more than 25 acres each. 
Even in the Seine-et-Marne, just west of Paris, there are 50,787 acres in 
the hands of 31,085 owners. Out of ten departments, taken at random, 
there were 97,710 owners with less than 25 acres of forest each, their 
average holdings being 3.2 acres. This is of the utmost importance; it is 
the key to the stability of France. In other countries the forests are 
usually in the hands of large owners; in the Republic of France the forest 
land, as well as the agricultural land, is divided among the people. There 
are few large estates remaining. Out of all the private forests in France 
there are only seventy-nine over 2,500 acres; in twenty-one departments 
there are none of this size. In the United States there are millions of 
farmers owning small woodlots, but according to the Society of American 
Foresters : 

"A few men have secured vast amounts of private timber and timberlands. Already 
1,802 owners control more than 79,000,000 acres of the forest lands of the United States. 
In Florida 182 holders own more than 9,000,000 acres. In Michigan over 5,000,000 
acres are held by 32 owners. In Louisiana 27 holders own more than 6,000,000 acres. 
In the Pacific Northwest three owners have more than 9,000,000 acres. And these are but 
typical instances." 

1 The figures of the total number of owners, given in the official French Forest Atlas 
of 1912, do not check with the owners under the various size classes. This discrepancy 
cannot be explained but does not affect the conclusions. 

45 



46 



FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 



From a national and political standpoint France is unquestionably the 
gainer by having her forests in small holdings. From the standpoint of 
forest management and the treatment of individual stands small owner- 
ship necessarily imphes that each owner will cut spasmodically to satisfy 
his needs in the village or farm. The large owner, on the contrary, upon 
competent technical advice, manages his forest as a permanent business 
and adheres fairly well to a sustained annual yield and to regulated fell- 
ings. Other things being equal, having forests in small holdings benefits a 
nation hut deteriorates the stand. 

Ownership, System of Cutting, and Production. — The summaries 
that follow (taken from the official statistics of 1912) have been some- 
what modified by the cutting and destruction made necessary by a great 
war. But fundamentally the statistics will probably remain correct as 
regards forest area because of the stringent laws against deforestation. 
For the next hundred years the wood production will probably be at least 
10 per cent less than during the past century. This means that in the 
next decade the production will be, say, 20 per cent less, while during the 
period 2010 to 2019 the loss may be only 1 per cent. In other words, the 
recovery will be gradual and progressive if a proper forest policy is fol- 
lowed. Detailed statistics (p. 50) show that 18.7 per cent of the total 
area of France is in forests. A summary of forest ownership, system of 
management, and annual production follows: 

TABLE 3. — SUMMARY OF FOREST OWNERSHIP, SYSTEMS OF MAN- 
AGEMENT, AND ANNUAL PRODUCTION 





Total 
area, 
acres 


Unpro- 
ductive, 
acres 


Coppice, 
acres 


Coppice- 
under- 

stand- 
ards, 
acres 


Under 
conver- 
sion, 
acres 


High 
forest, 
acres 


Annual production ° 


Ownership 


1,000 
board feet 


Cords 


State . . 


2,963,861 

4,815,148 
15,988,857 

662,590 
24,430,456 


366,226 

188,632 
610,901 

81,357 


64,109 

645,992 
4,856,214 

202,627 


792,539 

2,471,332 
5,856,947 

43,735 
9,134,553 


241,186 

33,008 
106,314 

3,590 


1,529,825 

1,476,186 
4,558,481 

3,311,836 


288,745 

355,061 
1,205,555 

68,292 


496,664 


Communes and pub- 
lic institutions. . . . 

Private 

Communes and pub- 
lic institutions 


943,422 
3,157,516 

66,719 


Totals 


1,247,116 


5,768,942 


384,098 


10,876,328 


1,917,756 


4,664,379 



"A factor of 3.5 cubic meters of logs to 1,000 board feet and 3.6 steres of fuel to 
one cord was used to obtain the column "Annual production." Because of deple- 
tion during the war these statistics are probably 10 to 20 per cent too high. 



Table 4 which follows shows the average annual per hectare production 
in cubic meters by departments. 

These data are classed especially for Federal, communal, and institu- 



OWNERSHIP, ETC. 



47 



TABLE 4.— AVERAGE ANNUAL PER HECTARE PRODUCTION IN CUBIC 
METERS BY DEPARTMENTS 





Under technical manag 


ement 


Private 


Comr 




Department 


Federal 


Communal and 
institution 


lunal 




Logs 


Fuel 

1.2 
2.7 
1.4 

o^r 

0.55 

2.6 

0.8 

2.5 

0.7 

0.8 

3^4' 

1.0 

2.1 

1.6 

1.5 

2.0 

0.4 

2.7 

3^3' 

l'2' 
0.3 
2.8 
1.9 
1.4 
0.2 
0.9 
3.4 
0.2 

1.9' 
2.0 
2.2 
0.2 
3.2 
0.6 
2.0 

0.25 

1.2 

2.5 

I's' 

6.32 


Logs 


Fuel 


Logs 


Fuel 


Logs 


Fuel 


Ain 


4.0 
2.1 
1.0 


1.3 

1.6 

0.6 

0.05 

0.26 

0.4 

0.1 

0.4 

1.2 

0.6 

0.2 

0.1 

0.4 

0.2 

0^6' 
0.1 
0.1 
0.7 

0^1 
0.4 

0^2' 

L7 
0.3 
0.2 
0.05 

0.5' 
0.6 
1.0 

0'5' 
0.3 

0^8' 

1.1 

1.4 

0.8 

2.4 

1.1 

o^r 

0^3 
0.2 

0'4 


1.0 

2.6 

2.6 

0.35 

0.24 

0.2 

1.3 

2.4 

0.8 

3.1 

0.6 

0.9 

3.9 

0.3 

l'2 
1.8 
2 2 
3.2 
2.2 
0.5 
2.5 

2'2' 

2^7' 
0.8 
2.1 
1.15 

1.0 
1.5 
2.9 
1.2 
0.4 
2.0 
2.4 

o.'s' 

2.6 
1.0 
2.0 
0.8 
0.4 

A.l 

2^5' 
0.5 

2'5' 


0.2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.08 

0.15 

0.1 

0.5 

1.0 

0.1 

0.5 

0.5 

0.1 

0.3 

0.3 

0.1 

0.4 

0.1 

0.3 

0.4 

0.1 

0.4 

0.5 

0.3 

0.4 

0.6 

1.1 

0.1 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

0.2 

1.4 

0^3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.4 
0.7 
2.7 
0.4 
2.9 
2.3 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
1.1 
0.4 
0.1 
0.2 


1.8 

2.1 

2.7 

0.62 

0.45 

0.5 

0.8 

2.2 

0.9 

2.0 

1.4 

1.3 

2.7 

0.6 

2.2 

0.8 

2.3 

3.1 

2.7 

0.4 

0.7 

2.5 

2.7 

2.6 

1.3 

1.8 

0.9 

1.9 

1.9 

2.7 

0.8 

1.9 

1.8 

2.0 

0.5 

2.5 

2.7 

1.8 

1.7 

1.6 

1.0 

1.8 

1.1 

1.2 

3.2 

2.0 

0.6 

1,6 

1,2 

3.1 

2.1 


0.1 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.4 

0'4' 

o'r 

0.1 
0.05 
0.02 
0.1 

0^2' 
0.6 

0^4' 
0.3 
0.6 
0.2 

0^7' 

o^r 

0.1 

0^2' 
1,3 

o^r 
0.5 

0^2' 

0.3 

3.0 

0.1 

3.7 

1.5 

o^r 
0.1 
0.9 
0.3 

0^2 


1.1 


Aisne 


1.7 


Allier 


2.8 


Alpes (Basses) 


0.4 


Alpes (Hautes) 

Alpes-Maritimes 


0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.9 
0.3 
0.7 
1.1 

l'4' 
2.0 
0.4 
0.3 
0.9 
1.0 
0.2 
0.6 


0.2 
0.5 


Ardeche . 


0.2 


Ardennes 


1.0 


Ariege 


0.7 


Aube 


2.3 


Aude 

Aveyron 

Belfort (Territoire de) 

Bouches-du-Rhone 

Calvados 


0.8 
1.1 
3.1 
0.75 

1.98 


Cantal 


1.0 


Charente 




Charente Inferieure 

Cher 


0.8 
2.9 


Correze 


0.1 


Corse 


0.9 


Coted'Or 


1.4 


C6tes-du-Nord 


1.6 


Creuse 


0.4 


2.7 


Dordogne 


0.4 


Doubs 


6.S 
0.3 
1.4 
1.1 
1.3 

0.3 


1.4 


Drome 


0,8 


Eure . . 


1,7 


Eure-et-Loir 


1,5 


Finistere 

Card 


2.1 
0.4 


Garonne (Haute) 


1.3 


Gers 


1.6 


Gironde 


1.6 


1.0 


Herault 


1.4 


Ule-et-Vilaine 


1.4 
0.5 
0.8 
1.3 
2.1 
1.6 
1.2 


1.5 


Indre 

Indre-et-Loir 


2.5 


Isere 


0.7 


Jura 


1.0 


Landes 

Loir-et-Cher 


1.0 
1.6 


Loire 


0.8 


Loire (Haute) 


0.25 

1.1 

0.3 


0.8 


Loire-Inferieure 

Loiret 

Lot 


3.6 
1.2 
0.6 


Lot-et-Garonne 




0.7 


Lozere 




0.8 


Maine-et-Loire 


1.8 
0.08 




Manche 


2.0 







48 



FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 



TABLE i. — Continued 





Under technical manangement 


Private 


Comr 




Department 


Federal 


Communal and 
institution 


Qunal 




Logs 


Fuel 

3.4 
2.2 
1.6 
2.6 
2.6 
2.7 
3.8 
1.7 
2.0 
1.8 
2.3 
0.5 
3.0 
1.2 
0.1 
1.2 
2.1 
2.6 
1.5 
0.3 
0.1 
3.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.2 
4.4 
3.0 
1.3 
3.8 
0.4 
0.5 
1.6 
1.4 
1.5 
1.9 
3.0 


Logs 


Fuel 

3.1 
2.3 

2,7' 
2.5 

4^6 
2.2 
2.0 

2^2' 

1.2 

1.1 

1.0 

0.4 

3^6' 

3.5 

2.8 

0.7 

0.9 

3.2 

3.1 

2.2 

3.9 

2.6 

2.5 

1.7 

3.0 

0.6 

0.5 

2^4' 

2^0 

2.7 


Logs 


Fuel 


Logs 


Fuel 


Marne 


1.5 
0.8 
3.7 
1.0 
0.8 
1.9 
0.6 
2.5 
1.0 
0.7 
1.9 
1.3 
0.6 
0.3 
0.1 
3.6 
1.9 
1.5 
2.0 


0.9 
0.6 

oi' 

0.5 

0^6' 
2.3 
0.3 

0^6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

0'9 
0.7 
0.2 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
0.9 
0.3 
1.4 

0^7' 

0^4' 
0.1 

0^1 

ia' 

0.3 


0.4 
0.6 
0.2 
0.8 
0.5 
1.0 
0.4 
1.4 
0.6 
0.5 
1.2 
0.8 
0.3 
0.4 
0.8 
1.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 
0.5 

0'3' 

0.2 

0.5 

0.1 

0.9 

0.2 

0.1 

0.3 

0^2' 

0.1 

0.2 

0.9 

0.3 


1.9 
2.1 
1.5 
1.7 
2.0 
2.0 
4.0 
2.0 
2.4 
2.6 
2.6 
1.1 
2.0 
1.7 
1.1 
2.0 
3.1 
2.7 
1.9 
1.3 
1.2 
0.5 
3.0 
2.3 
2.3 
3.0 
2.2 
1.7 
0.9 
0.5 
0.5 
2.5 
2.0 
3.1 
1.5 
2.6 


0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 
1.8 

LO' 
0.5 

i^o' 

0.3 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 

o^r 

0.1 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 

0^3' 

0.1 

0.2 

0.1 

0.8 

0.3' 

0^3' 
0.5 
0.2 


0.8 


Haute-Marne 


1.1 


Mayenne 


2.0 


Meurthe-et-Moselle 

Meiise 

Morbihan 


1.1 
1.4 
0.3 


Nievre 

Nord 


5.0 
1.5 


Oise 


2.1 


Orne 

Pas-de-Calais 

Puy-du-D6me 

Pyrenees (Basses) 

Pyrenees (Haute) 


2.2 
2.4 
0.3 
1.5 
0.6 


Pyrenees-Orientales 

Rhone 

Saone (Haute) 

Saone-et-Loire 


0.6 
3.3 
2.2 
2.1 


Sarthe 

Savoie 


2.2 
0.4 


Savoie (Haute) 


0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
1.4 
0.9 
0.6 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.1 
0.4 
0.8 
0.2 
2.5 
0.6 


0.5 


Seine 


0.6 


Seine-et-Marne 

Seine-et-Oise 


2.5 

2.4 


Seine-Inferieure 


1.7 


Sevres (Deux) 


3.6 


Somme 


2.6 


Tarn 


1.4 


Tarn-et-Garonne 




Var 


0.4 


Vaucluse 


0.1 




1.5 


Vienne 




Vienne (Haute) . 


3.5 


Vosges 


1.3 


Yonne 


2.1 



tional forests which are under technical State management and for 
private and communal forests which are ordinarily not under technical 
supervision. The figures for each class of owner are divided into logs and 
fuel, and represent the number of cubic meters which the forests produce 
per hectare and per year. In order to reduce these figures to American 
units of measure (board feet and cords) the figures in the log column 
should be divided by 3.5 and figures in the fuel column by 0.277, the 
approximate answers being 1,000 board feet and cords. A study of these 
figures shows clearly that the forests under technical management pro- 
duce a much higher proportion of sawlogs to fuel than do the private or 



FOREST AREAS 49 

communal forests not under management; for example, take the depart- 
ment of Ain : the Federal forests produce more than three times as much 
saw timber as fuel, while the private forests produce nine times as much 
fuel as saw timber. 

A somewhat similar ratio holds for other departments. 

Forest Areas and Per Cent of Species by Departments. — Table 5 
which follows shows by departments : (a) per cent forested ; (6) total forest 
area, areas under technical management, and areas not under State work- 
ing plans; (c) for the forests under technical management the per cent of 
the important species given to the nearest tenth. 



50 



FOREST STATISTIC.IL DATA 



:)nnjs3q3 



an id 



auid 
nsoisjoQ 





































m 































'5[BO UI(OJJ 



anid 9UIIJUBJ5 



auid oddajy 



puB aonadg 






snoaisaj 
BnoanB[iaosii\[ 



■■*« .-H ._H ■-< 



saABajpBOjq 
snoaaB[[aDsij\[ 



• ic »n 



auid Tjo:)03g 



■ cq ■ -(M • -O 



qOJB7 



niBaqujojj 



•^H ■ -CO 



■ ^4 • -(M • ■ -Ol 



ijoaag 



WCOCO'-^'-H -C^^H^Oi— tcOSO^l -^• 



■^-HC^^H -C-l •COCO'«*''^C^OCO 



^^o 



CO c^ >o »-i O ■ ■ lO ■ ■»*< 



CO CO 00 t^iTi -^ ■ -^ 



. C^ CO CD -CO 



^1 



C5coDOt^oorf«2'-H.: 



— C- O »0 tC -M O C 



lOoci-^GCcsiot^O'— cocicooc^ic^^SO'—icr^ 



lOtsMcoor^— ' — ■^o — oor 



J 3C "^ CC CC OC' » 






O^-ClOt^O— ■*OGOt--OOCCOO'^CO"^ — -^ 



•^■^r^co-^ojOioc^c 



3 QC -— > 1— I "<*< CO -^ '-H 



^--^O'— 'C^ii^OCOOC 



1 00 .— I cs o; ci CO 



i--C03lu^cDC0-^'*t'C0C0Ci0iiC'— 'OiOOOC>CDCO'rt'OOODCOb-t^t^»Ot--t^C^'— i"^ooo;co 



eocs »-( Tf ccc 



<© CO '^ C^) 1-H CO (N ^ ^ <N 1-H ^ C^I 



<^ 0) ^*^ ^ cj 



■^M2^^■^^"^^'--'cocoo^*^^lr^--ono^^l-Hcoc<^eDr^^r^lClO'— 'coOTt*coocot^c>3co^t^ 
SSSS ?2 55 crc^'cri>rcvf »o 00' --rot-r 00 c^ 00 ^-^^^'cJ^ CO r^cei^f CO cT^ ^ -^ 

— - A, ^ — — ^ ._ ._ . — ■ — * ^-^ >" -« ,— I r-i Tt* CO ^ C^l CO ^-i OC IC Cv CC ^H 



coco^oooocooocit^coSt-^i^fec^StS^S^o^-c 



31^ £ o o 



lOOOOcOCOOiO'— «io 



OsOirO^(>icM— iTftD(M( 



£)-rt'00CO-*GOC;COCO 

^y^t^'* ^00 C3_Tj^w c^i_co o -^"^-"S'Tt^r^cot^iocoi^ 

^ >OOOCD iOC^-HCOI>^r^COh^^'^CO"cO'-H"co^^OOCD'-H 
(Mr— cftl•^-^^s_^^^^^p^^^^J^^ CO'— tC^Tt< (M»0 



<M C^5 ^ 1-. (M 



r-kr--rt<iocC'OCooo»cOiO(MC^ 
cv5C^eo^or-t-r--cor-oot-:^ 

CD'^CDC'l ClO-^OOCO'-^QC'^ 
^ O ^ CD" 00^-3'— '■^»OC*JOOC-1'^ 






c:lo□ocoo-*l.or^^-'^t^coc^3ococ^u:lOOc^a'«»'Ooo^^C5QOcct^cC'^■**'cc■co^^'^^cD<r5QO»o 
---J*c>oox^-•^-»oo■^c^Ci»otoOl-^coc^J^^c/^oici■^lO^-occ;cco•^»o•*t'l^ccco^'— '»o 

CM,— i.-.C^]C^Cqr-H(MCO(N'— < CO.-H r-iT-H*-<t-.r-ii— iC^ C^C^(M '-■•-' C^J'— ■^'-h i-i<— i 



7; X r. ,y. t^ fcr 



<D ® 

L- L_ _C -^ -^ fli (D 



c|-||ll?-§.||| £-| g-^ sill ^ 

fflOOOOuUCj 






s^^ s 



<0-0 £ o O ■- 3 3.5 " = "u — ■^.:: ;: ;; 






FOREST AREAS 



51 





o^ 



































■to - d - - -(M r-« f-H 



•(M'^ -(MCO -r-KMi-* 



■ C^J t-f (M • CNl Cq 1— « (M CO M (N ( 



SC-li— iCS"DCO'— f -i-H.-HCO'— •'— ti— I— n-HiOC 



^H CO -H r- r-H -coco 



■"^"^COCO-^COCOOCO"^' 



:oi05Dtoi:^C7ic;'<rco»oc=cO'^c^>or^r--c»c>]cjico^T-.o»o»oeooi^t- — 'jct---coC3C2 

^(^ocDlOCoc*^QOcoodoc■{c^oococo•^c^^^■^oo^ocio j^ r~. TJ'T"'— ^f^9?5?5?' 
-., ^ ■s^iooob-coio^r^OioocO'-HcD^^ir^'M'^c;— o t^t;^f^ 

CO TtH 1-H ■^ T-t C^) CSJ CM CO C^J C^ rf CO C^ CO CO C^ C^ (M 



— " O -H O • 
-H o <:- - ■ 



C'l t-- 1-H CD O OO C 



ic -^ c^ CO '— I cq CO cq cs 1-H i-H -^ tt 



■" uD CO •-' o c; ic 
;!>-•—« c: '— iC l>- 

Daicot^<MCOc:»or^'^o 
rsOiOi— 'COCO*:©©!— 'CO'— < 

« _^ r^ ^-. <M ^ lO Tj< 



OOCO'^CO-HGOO;t^<M'MOtCCDl-— ■— <c-«?co 
COQOC'3'<*iCiCOCOCOOOiO^Ht--t--COu:500t--t--. 



5 CO ^ 

1 O CO O O 
J u^ (M <N OS — 



, tCio-^-^^oor-^cicocor-Tc-T'oocoGOc 

i-^QOCDt-QOCOOCCLQ'-O-t^OCO'— II 



^OOC5COCDCOCOCO'-HCO'-tiOOOO-^COTj<05COOOb-0 

" — lOCiCi^^coiot^oaoococqO'— 't^i-^ococ-i»o 



□OOOGO -^ 

■T^ CI O CO O 00 C:_ ^ V ----_---. ------ 

O-^Tjn'ocO'-H'oiOCOCOiO'^'-H^-oi'-^GOCO 



O O lO 1— « «o 

COOOOOi-H <M 



H C^ ^H^H^H (M ^ 



>— tO-^G000»O'— •Ol(M"«t^00'— 'OOi 



rt ^^<M 



. !>. .-H 1-H OQ lO i-H 



00I>-O0 CO CO'^QS 



Hooco-^ocoi— llO^-.^--»ocococoooco^-•^--oOGO^coQO'-^c^^*l>•o^-•lOco<oo50Cl■^^;OlO 

-- — - — - .- CD'-HifOCOOS-^O'-'OOO'— 'OOCDi— '■rf'CDCOCOOOCDiOCOQOCOO 



I.— (0'^5DOt^O*^000'^C5»-HCD(M'— <cD(MCOOi"— '■^0<>a "^"^ 



) "^ 1— 1 !>. 1— ( <Z> Oi-^-^ C 



^'— icootoc5»oc<jiO"rtHco': 



Ol'^COO'-' (3Tt<C01>.^H-^C0CO<MC:CO'-H"rt"r 
O O (M O •— < O t— 00 i-H 1— I -^ CO '— ' '-H t— I CO' 






lCOCOC^»CiJOGOOOOOO-^iOiOCO'^OCOC:COCS> 
Srfr'-COC'l'— t»CCOCif:000 1-^I>-CO»0'— 'OiOO'-HO< 



3^C5'^CCI-*0"^C^<£)»OCOOO»00! 
5CDCO<ModcOCOOiiOOCO^O)Ot^- 



5 O CD CiTj* 

- C^^ od CD (M 
1-H CO c^ 



<M CO »0 Cq 1-1 ^H ■--( CSl r-t T-l CVJ CO <M c 



'-'r-l ,-,^^<Mt 



,CM rt ^ ^ 




2l« 



3 e 

o o 

c c 



ffij> 



^O-JiQ 



OJ O Q) fl) QJ C 

S 2.S.S'> S 

c3 C3 cS'S'o at QJ Q) o, 



^-S 2 S s » "S 

— ^ c c o c -e 



5 2g 
S<o<o 



> >. 



C M g 

5 S.2.2 o o 



52 



FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 



A comparison of the ten most heavily forested departments with those 
least timbered is given below: 

TABLE 6. — MOST HEAVILY AND THE LEAST FORESTED DEPARTMENTS 



Numerical 


Most heavily forested 


Least forested 


order 


Department 


Per cent forested 


Department 


Per cent forested 


1 
2 


Landes 

Gironde 


55.4 
46.2 
49.5 
36.9 
35.7 
33.8 
32.5 
31.5 
29.8 
29.8 


Manche 

Seine 


3.2 
3.7 


3 


Var 


Vendee 


4.3 


4 
5 
6 


Vosges 

Ariege 

Jura 


Finistere 

Loire-Inferieure. . 
C6tes-du-Nord.. . 
Pas-de-Calais .... 

Mayenne 

Creuse 


4.4 
4.5 
4.7 


7 
8 
9 


Saone (Haute) .... 
Marne (Haute). . . 
C6ted'0r 


5.4 
5.8 
5.9 


10 


Meuse 


Somme 


6.5 










Averaged bv denartments . . 


38.1 




4.8 











An analysis of the heavily forested departments discloses that two were 
sand wastes (like parts of Minnesota and Michigan) but were reforested; 
five are mountainous, or very hilly; and two are hilly or too wet for agri- 
culture. The least forested departments are largely agricultural la!nd or 
moors. When it is considered that the final use of this land has been 
evolved after centuries of settlement, the present-day use is significant, 
and it is especially noteworthy that there is to-day much land growing 
timber which is suitable for agriculture, yet the French Forest Code 
recognizes that it is in the pubhc interest to retain the land now under 
forest for the production of timber, even where it could grow agricultural 
crops. 

Analysis of General Statistics. — General. — The following facts are 
shown by Tables 3 to 6: (a) Out of 24.5 milhon acres of forest land less 
than one-third is under technical forest management, {h) Less than 5 
per cent of the entire forest area is unproductive. A larger proportion of 
State and communal forest land is unproductive because the State and 
communes own most of the mountain slopes requiring conservative cut- 
ting, and where considerable areas cannot support tree growth, (c) More 
than two-thirds of the private forests are treated under coppice, or coppice- 
under-standards; less than one-half of one per cent of this area is being 
converted into high forest. Only two-fifths of French forests are under 
high forest, (d) The total annual production of French forests is esti- 
mated at 1,917,756,000 feet board measure and 4,664,379 cords of fuel. 

State Forests. — According to the original statistics on State forests: 



ANALYSIS OF GENERAL STATISTICS 53 

(a) There are no State forests in the departments of C6tes-du-Norcl, 
Dordogne, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Rhone, Vienne (Haute). (6) The six 
departments with the most State forest area, in the order of importance, 
are: Ariege, Alpes (Basses) Yosges, Cote d'Or, Loiret, Drome, (c) The 
six heaviest producing (State forest) departments, in the order of their 
importance, are: Vosges, Seine-Inferieure, Cote d'Or, Aisne,^ Jura, 
Meurthe-et-Moselle.2 (d) The unproductive land in the State forests is 
chiefly in the mountains, notably in the departments of Ariege, Alpes 
(Hautes), Pyrenees-Orientales, Drome, Isere, Alpes (Basses). 

Communal and Institution Forests. — There are no communal and in- 
stitution forests under State control in the following departments: (a) 
Calvados, C6tes-du-Nord, Finistere, Indre-et-Loire (Inferieure), Lot, 
Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Morbihan, Orne, Vendee. The largest areas 
are in the (6) Vosges, Saone (Haute), Cote d'Or, Doubs, Meuse, Marne 
(Haute), but as regards production (c) Saone (Haute) is first with Doubs, 
Vosges, Jura, Meuse, Cote d'Or, in the order named, (d) The unproduc- 
tive land is also in the mountains, notably in the following departments: 
Alpes (Hautes), Var, Ardeche, Isere, Pyrenees-Orientales, Alpes (Basses). 

Private Forests. — The statistical data on private forests and on com- 
munal and institution forests not under management is less trustworthy, 
(a) But it is certain that there is privately owned forest land in every de- 
partment of France, with a minimum ownership of but 121 acres in the 
Seine which includes Paris (this corresponds to the District of Columbia 
in the United States). (6) The largest areas of privately owned forests 
are in the Landes, Gironde, Dordogne, Var, Nievre, Marne. The Var 
mountain forests produce but little saw timber though the acreage is 
large, (c) The heaviest production of private forest land is found in the 
Landes and Gironde, together 3,008,483 cubic meters (corresponding to 
445,253,000 feet board measure and 340,963 cords of fuel), Nievre, Dor- 
dogne, Marne, Cote d'Or, together 1,871,144 cubic meters (or about 
88,928,000 feet board measure and 481,563 cords). Certain features of 
production are illustrated by these figures and by the original statistics. 
In the Landes the fuel produced was about one-third the volume of the 
timber, while in the Gironde (also a maritime pine producing department) 
the ratio of fuel to timber was as 8 is to 6. Moreover, in the Nievre, 
Dordogne, Marne, and Cote d'Or, where private forests are largely cop- 
pice and coppice-under-standards, the total timber production was but 
one-fifth that of the Landes and Gironde, but the fuel produced exceeded 
the latter two departments by more than 140,000 cords, (d) There is 
less unproductive forest privately owned than publicly owned, although 
the total area of private forest is about double that in the hands of the 
State, communes, and institutions. 

2 Heavily devastated by the war operations of the Germans and the French. 



54 



FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 



Management Statistics. — Unquestionably the management of French 
State forests is over-conservative. No systematic attempt has been 
made to follow financial rotations. There have been excess growing 
stocks,^ due in many cases to over-careful working plans that followed an 
era of overcutting. In communal forests, managed by the State, this 
excess is usually 25 per cent and often more. As contrasted with those 
publicly managed, the forests in private hands are managed on shorter 
rotations and far too great an acreage is in coppice, or coppice-under- 
standards. As an illustration of this tendency to short rotations we 
find eight-tenths of the private forests in coppice or coppice-under- 
standards, no-tenths in conversion, and only two-tenths in high forest. 
With State forests five-tenths in high forest, three-tenths in coppice 
and coppice-under-standards, and two-tenths in conversion. 

This variance in the length of rotations is further illustrated by the de- 
tailed statistics for each department. Take some typical examples: 

VOSGES (CONIFERS) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High forest 



Length of rotation in years 



Under 
State control 



2.5-40 
100-132 
120-150 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



15-25 (few 35) 

"so^ioo (few'iid)"" 
Some are cut for paper 



pulp at 30. 



For the high forests under State control the prevalent rotation is 144 
years, while notable State forests Hke Gerardmer, Ban d'fitival, la Bresse, 
Cornimont, and Champ have 150-year rotations. 



SAVOIE (HAUTE) (CONIFERS) 





Length of rotation in years 


System of treatment 


LTnder 
State control 


Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 


20-30 j 
20-32 


6-10 
10-25 


Conversions 




High forest 


144-180 


30-100 







^ For example, in the State forest of Berce (Sarthe) there are compartments with 700 
to 800 cubic meters of oak to the hectare, worth 30,000 to 40,000 francs. In the forest of 
Levier silver fir runs as high as 1,000 cubic meters per hectare, or 25,000 francs, on soil 
worth 100 to 200 francs per hectare. 



MANAGEMENT STATISTICS 



55 



The rotation of 180 years is chiefly for forests at high altitudes where 
the growth of spruce or fir is slower. Chamonix is 200 years (see p. 252), 
Samoens 162 to 180, and the forest of Houches 180 to 240. These are all 
selection forests in a severe mountain climate. 



SAVOIE (CONIFERS) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 

Conversions 

High forest 




Length of rotation in years 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



6-10 
10-25 



30-120 



These long high forest rotations are for selection forests in the moun- 
tains. A few run even higher, notably Pussy communal at 200, Tignes 
communal 180 to 240, and Bramans 198 to 264. The State forest of Belle- 
vaux is 144 years. These communal forests with long rotations were 
formerly overcut and are now being improved and a suitable growing 
stock accumulated. 



VAR (MARITIME PINE, 


ALEPPO 


PINE, HOLM OAK 


COMMON OAK) 








Length of rotation in years 


System of treatment 


Under 
State control 


Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 


18-25 
25-30 


10-18 


Conversions 




High forest 


60-80 


50-60 and less 







PYRfiN^lES-ORIENTALES (MOUNTAIN PINE, HOLM OAK, BEECH, MISCELLANEOUS) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 

Conversions 

High forest 



Length of rotation in years 



Under 
State control 



18-26 
32-40 



150-180 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



15-20 

Devastated 



56 



FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 



The mountain pine in the regular State high forest of Barres is handled 
on a 180 to 200 year rotation, and the fir and mountain pine in the com- 
munal forest of Bolquere, 240 years. 



ORNE (BROADLEAVES) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High forest 



Length of rotation in years 



Under 
State control 



20-30 
150-180 
150-180 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



^12 

Short 



The oak and beech in the State forest of Econnes is managed on a ro- 
tation of 180 years; State forest of Bourse 180 years; State forest of Bel- 
leme 200 years; State forest of Reno-Valdieu 180 years. The pine which 
has been introduced in this region is not yet mature. 



OISE (BROADLEAVES) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High forest 



Length of rotation in years 



Under 
State control 



20-35 
8(^-150 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



10-15 
18-25 



The State forest of Hez-Froidmont (see Fig. 6 (ato/)),oak, beech, etc., has 
a rotation of 150 years. Compiegne (where the Germans were stopped) 
150 for high forest and 35 for the coppice and coppice-under-standards. 



HAUTE-MARNE (BROADLEAVES) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High forest 



Length of rotation in years 



Under 
State control 



25-40 



144-150 
144-150 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



14-25 (few 30-40) 



COSTS OF ADMINISTRATION 



57 



There are no rich notable State forests in this department. The State 
forest of d'Auberive is managed on a 150-year rotation; Bussieres 144; de 
la Haie-Renault 144; all of these are being converted from coppice and 
coppice-under-stanclards to high forest. 



YONNE (BROADLEAVES) 



System of treatment 



Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 

Conversions 

High forest 



Length of rotation in years 



Under 
State control 



20-30 
150-180 
150-180 



Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 



12-18 
20-25 



40-50 (Scotch pine) 



Here four-fifths the forest area is under rotations of less than 25 years. 

LANDES (MARITIME PINE) 





Length of rotation in years 


System of treatment 


LTnder 
State control 


Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 


Coppice • 




10-20 


Coppice-under-standards 


20-25 




Conversions 




High forest 


60-120 1 


60-80 




12-16 



GIRONDE 


(MARITIME PINE) 








Length of rotation in years 


System of treatment 


Under 
State control 


Private or uncon- 
trolled communal 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 


15-25 
15-25 


12-15 
20-25 


Conversions . . 




High forest 


50-72 


45-60 (resin) 
15-30 (mine props) 





Costs of Administration. — As Huffel points out, it is difficult to say 
authoritatively just what it costs to manage the State forests because the 
budget provides also for the management of communal forests and public 
establishments, for game and fish protection, for control of deforestation, 
for the reforestation of eroded mountain lands, for dune protection and for 




Fig. 6 (a to c). — State forest of Hez-Froidmont. First working group: (a — top 
left) Oak and beech saplings; (6 — ^ top right) Poles; (c — -bottom) Seed felling in 
course of exploitation, illustrating thorough utilization and use of long, clear lengths. 

68 




Fig. 6 (d to/). — State forest of Hez-Froidmont. (d — top left) Appearance after 
seed felling is completed; (e — top right), (/ — bottom) Secondary felling showing 
regeneration secured by seed felUng. The advance growth in the background will be 
cut back, so as to assure an even-aged stand. 59 



60 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 

grazing betterments. Much the same thing is true in the United States, 
where the Forest Service has a lump-sum appropriation to cover all man- 
ner of scientific work and investigations as well as for the management 
and protection of the National Forests. HuffeH makes the conclusion: 

"Taking everything into consideration, it is estimated that $173,700 is about the 
expense for the management of the State forests; this figure corresponds to 6 cents per 
acre. It is estimated that protection costs 16 cents per productive acre; maintenance 
absorbs 12 cents per acre; communal and departmental tax 16 cents per acre. We have 
then the following revenues and costs per productive acre in State forests for 1892 
(which is considered a typical year) : 

Per cent of 
gross revenue 

$2.26 Net yield, or 81.2 

.06 Cost of management, or 2.5 

.16 Cost of protection, or 5.8 

.12 Maintenance, or 4.5 

.16 Communal and departmental tax, or 5.9 

$2.76 Gross revenue 99.9 

"The expense for the personnel in France represents only 23 cents per productive 
acre, or 8.3 per cent of the gross revenue." 

It is of interest to note that this cost figure is less than those for Ba- 
varia, Prussia, Saxony, or Wlirtemberg where the lowest (Wiirtemberg) 
absorbs 12.1 per cent of the gross revenue for personnel. 

Statistics of Fir Stands in the Jura. — One of the questions asked by- 
private forest owners and others interested in the yield of forests is: What 
will forests (naturally regenerated) return in lumber or money? The 
answers given to this question by normal yield tables, usually based on 
planted stands, are often so high that they cannot be applied, without 
much guesswork and modification, to American conditions. Actual 
averages of compartments or whole forests are more reliable for the pur- 
poses of judging what forestry can attain. (See also Chapter XL) 
Therefore the statistics ^ wliich follow, for fir-spruce forests in the Jura 
mountains of France, somewhat comparable to spruce-fir stands of 
northern New England, are of particular interest and value. They show 
what forestry can attain (as a maximum) under favorable conditions on 
non-agricultural mountain land over whole compartments of 15 to 30 
acres. 

(a) Compartment 18, fifth working group. State Forest of La Joux 
(second Jura Plateau), 60 per cent fir and 40 per cent spruce, fully stocked, 
thrifty stand planted after a windfall in 1812; 100 years old in 1912. 

■» Pp. 408-409, Vol. I, ficonomie Forestiere. 

^ Based on unpublished data supplied by Devarennes, Inspector, French Forest 
Service, in charge of Jura working plans in 1912. 



STATISTICS OF FIR STANDS IN THE JURA 



61 



Diameter, 


Number of 

trees 

per acre 


Volume, cubic 
meters 
per acre 


Approximate a 


breast-high, 
inches 


Board feet 
per acre 


Cords 
per acre 


10 
16 
22 

28 
Totals 


45.6 

63.6 

24.8 

3.2 

137.2 


32.4 

112.0 

88.0 

24.0 

256.4 


5,700 
32,300 
23,400 

7,200 
68,600 


4.8 
15.0 
11.8 

1.6 
33.2 



(6) Same forest and working group but compartment 19 and from 
entirely natural regeneration; 100 years old, but 90 per cent fir and 10 per 
cent spruce. 









Approximate a 


Diameter, 


Number of 
trees 


Volume, cubic 

meters 






breast-high, 






inches 


per acre 


per acre 


Board feet 
per acre 


Cords 
per acre 


10 


67.2 


47.2 


8,400 


7.2 


16 


98.0 


170.8 


45,300 


22.6 


22 


35.2 


123.6 


33,800 


16.4 


28 


4.0 


24.0 


7,200 


1.6 


Totals 


204.4 


365.6 


94,800 


47.8 



Such yields seem incredibly high, and the larger number of trees and 
the higher yield on the area naturally regenerated is especially note- 
worthy. The fact remains that these yields were attained, within at 
least 10 per cent, allowing for a possible 10 per cent error in estimate. 

(c) Pure spruce, 100 years old from natural regeneration on a compart- 
ment in the forest of Ouhans (first Jura Plateau); altitude 2,300 feet. 



Diameter, 


Number of 

trees 

per acre 


Volume, cubic 
meters 
per acre 


Approximate a 


breast-high, 
inches 


Board feet 
per acre 


Cords 
per acre 


10 

16 

22 

Totals 


97.2 

84.8 

13.2 

195.2 


60.8 
151.2 

54.4 
266.4 


10,600 
39,600 
14,500 
64,700 


9.2 
21.6 

7.2 

38.0 



"■ These conversions (a, h, c, d) were made as follows : For 10-inch trees 4 cubic meters 
were counted to the 1,000 feet after 30 per cent subtracted for cordwood. In the other 
diameter classes 3 cubic meters were counted to the 1,000 feet, after subtracting 20 per 
cent for the cordwood in the 16 and 22 inch classes and only 10 per cent of the 28-inch 
class. Two cords were considered equal to 1,000 board feet. 



62 



FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 



(d) Ninety per cent fir, 10 per cent spruce, 100 years old from natural 
regeneration on a compartment in the forest of St. Point (third Jura 
Plateau); altitude 3,280 feet. 



Diameter, 


Number of 

trees 

per acre 


Volume, cubic 
meters 
per acre 


Approximate a 


breast-high, 
inches 


Board feet 
per acre 


Cords 
per acre 


10 
16 
22 

Totals 


76.8 

64.0 

13.6 

154.4 


44.8 
119.2 

57.6 
221.6 


7,800 
31,800 
15,400 
55,000 


6.8 
15.8 

7.6 
30.2 



These four compartments average almost 71,000 board feet per acre 
and indicate vi^hat can be attained in 100 years as a maximum with 
thrifty, vigorous stands of silver fir under proper forest management. 

Statistics for Levier. — The Federal forest of Levier ® perhaps contains, 
next to La Joux, the best large body of silver fir in the Jura and is one of 
the richest and most productive in France. It is situated near Pontarher 
and rests on three plateaus cut by more or less deep valleys. With inter- 
spersed private and communal forests it makes a stand of about 24,000 
acres of almost pure fir. It runs up to 800 cubic meters to the hec- 
tare (80,000 to 85,000 board feet to the acre). There is an excellent 
road system. The forest was formerly the property of the Prince de 
Chalon, afterwards Phihp II, of Spain. It was added to the Federal 
domain in 1674, with the exception of the forest of Vignory which was 
sold to the king in 1782, and the forest of Gonailles which was not joined 
to the royal domain until 1725. The forests of Aro and Maublin were 
despoiled by the neighboring communes. One canton has the right "for 
timbers in case of fire or in other cases resulting in the destruction of in- 
habited places." The same communes have the right to remove stumps 
and debris, and some grazing. The grazing right, however, is not ex- 
ercised. The total area of this Federal forest is 6,713 acres, of which 
6,702 acres are productive. There are eight working circles with an 
average area of 838 acres, and 193 compartments with an average area of 

" La Foret Domaniale de Levier, par G. Mongenot, 1912, pp. 1-23, Lucienn Laveur, 
Editeur. 

Since this forest was a notable American center during the war, considerable detail 
is given. 

The forest of La Joux is the richest in the Jura, the yield amounting to 15.8 cubic 
meters per hectare (about 1,900 feet board measure per acre) per year. The gross 
revenue has averaged for a period as high as $15.12 per acre per year. The net revenue 
is approximately $14.81 per acre per year. 



STATISTICS FOR LEVIER 63 

35 acres. The soil is generally deep, fresh, and rich in humus, and the 
rainfall is 4.5 to 6.5 feet per year. The fir comprises 90 per cent of the 
stand and the spruce 10 per cent. The beech is, unfortunately, rare. 
Fir 160 years old yields timber 115 to 131 feet in length and when 210 to 
260 years old it is 3 to 4 feet in diameter. Seed years occur every two 
years and reproduction is easy if there are no briars. In the past there 
has been but little insect damage, but recent windfalls which were not 
immediately barked occasioned some insect damage. The fungus, 
Aecidium elatium, when it affects trees, is removed in thinning. Under 
present conditions game is quite rare and the hunting is annually let 
for $79.13. Before regular logging the timber is generally lopped and 
lightly squared with the axe and the smaller pieces barked. It is hauled 
in full lengths. There are 42 miles of local forest roads, 6.5 to 16.4 feet in 
width, which are maintained at an annual expense of about $3,474. There 
are also 29 miles of rather poorly laid out old roads, and the entire forest 
is bounded by a rough stone wall, 39 inches in height, to prevent grazing 
and trespass. There are two small nurseries (one near the Ronde Ranger 
Station). Formerly the yield was fixed at one and a half trees of 1.33 
meters (4.26 feet) diameter per hectare (3f trees per acre) per annum. 
These moderate cuttings, below the real capacity of the forest, accumu- 
lated a considerable reserve. In 1818-1820 Lorentz inspected this forest 
and advised the cutting of all the old trees over the young growth. In 
1844 the yield was 7 cubic meters per hectare (2.8 cubic meters per 
acre). In 1861 the yield was by volume coupled with improvement 
selection cuttings every four or five years without limitation of volume. 
This proved a happy innovation because it diminished the excess growing 
stock and saved a great many trees that were declining in vigor. From 
1881 to 1894 the average yield was 10.27 cubic meters per hectare (4.1 
per acre) per year, worth $32.47 or 33.17 per cubic meter (about $10 per 
acre). Of this yield, it should be mentioned, however, that 10 per cent 
was branch and stump wood. The compartments were made approxi- 
mately equal. This was an error, since it would have been better to have 
them differ somewhat in size and follow natural features for boundaries. 
In 1894 the working plan was revised and all trees 9.5 to 60 inches in 
diameter were caHpered, giving 231 trees per hectare (94 trees or 49,000 
feet board measure per acre). The yield per cent was established at 
2.35 per cent, plus a fraction of the excess volume, bringing the total cut 
up to 2.74 per cent. During the years 1905 to 1911 the yield was 11.93 
cubic meters per hectare (4.8 per acre) per year, or a revenue of $16.12 
per acre. This amounted to 2.66 per cent of the total volume. In 1911 
it is interesting to note that the windfalls amounted to 11,134 cubic 
meters and were sold at $42,196. During 1916-1919 about eighteen an- 
nual yields were cut to supply the armies. 



64 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA 

This is the history of a forest where the results of sound management 
have proved increasingly beneficial. It is cited in connection with the 
study of forest statistics to illustrate the history of a well managed forest 
and to drive home the increasing benefits derived. 



CHAPTER VI 
NATURAL REGENERATION 

French Policy (p. 65). General, Nancy School Policy, Assist Nature, Study Soil 
Conditions, Soil Preparation. 

French Silvicultural Methods (p. 70). Systems of Cutting, The Market. 

High Forest Systems (p. 71). Clear Cutting Oak, Clear Cutting Maritime Pine, 
Clear Cutting Aleppo Pine, Spruce Strip Fellings, Shelterwood Cuttings in Oak, Seed 
Felling, Secondary Felling, Final Felling, Shelterwood for Beech, Shelterwood for Oak- 
Beech, Shelterwood for Maritime Pine, Shelterwood for Scotch Pine, Shelterwood for 
Fir, Shelterwood for Spruce, Shelterwood for Fir and Spruce in Mixture, The Selection 
System in Broadleaf Stands (Beech), Fir Selection Fellings, Spruce Selection Felhngs, 
Selection Fellings for Scotch and Aleppo Pine, Group Selection for Fir or Spruce, Group 
Selection for Larch (and other methods), Treatment for Scenic Forests. 

Coppice Systems (p. 92). General, Simple Coppice, Coppice with Field Crops, 
Selection Coppice (Beech), Coppice-Under-Standards, A Substitute for Coppice-Under- 
Standards (Futaie Claire), Conversions. 

Care of the Stand After Regeneration (p. 105). Intermediate Cuttings, Clean- 
ing (and Freeing) Young Stands, Thinnings, Improvement Fellings. 

FRENCH POLICY 

General. — The French forester has always been a close student of 
soil conditions, seed crops, and methods of seed germination, because his 
ideal has always been to obtain the natural regeneration of forests. 
And to-day high labor costs will make artificial forestation almost pro- 
hibitive. It has been argued that natural regeneration is the more 
costly in the end, because to regenerate forests naturally took 15 to 20 
years or more and that even then the results were unsatisfactory. But 
in France, with a mild cHmate, plenty of rainfall, rich soil, and species 
that produce seed crops in abundance, natural regeneration has succeeded 
and will be continued, except when normal forest conditions must be 
restored in the devastated war zones and where the damages of past over- 
cutting have not yet been completely repaired. 

The French forester is a student of nature. For generations he has 
been taught "Imiter la nature, hater son ceuvre, telle est la maxime 
fondamentale de la sylviculture." His simplest problem is where he can 
clear-cut the entire stand and yet secure his second crop without plant- 
ing; his difficulties increase as the cuttings must be varied in degree and 
in number so as to tempt the next generation of trees to gain a footing 

1 Professor Hawley kindly reviewed this chapter. 
65 



66 NATURAL REGENERATION 

in competition with grass, weeds, and undesirable species. But he recog- 
nizes that success cannot always be obtained under these difficult condi- 
tions without assisting nature. Consequently he is ready to wound the 
ground covered with grass so that the seed can germinate in the mineral 
soil, or he may have to cut back briars or heather which is crowding out 
the commercial stand. 

In the United States there are three schools of forest sentiment: (1) 
The lover of primeval forests wants to spare all trees for the sake of their 
beauty. He does not care whether trees mature and die and go to waste. 
(2) The lumberman, who buys forests for profit. After stripping off the 
merchantable timber he lets the soil take care of itself if he cannot sell 
to a land speculator. (3) The State preaches a middle course — grow 
timber as a crop and cut the stand when it ripens. This should be the 
forester's Golden Rule. Let us profit by the example of a country like 
France and use nature to help us in our task. Natural regeneration is 
the aim in France and, in the United States, with om- high labor costs, 
forestry will be a business failure for some time to come unless 95 per cent 
of our forest soil can be stocked without sowing or planting. 

Nancy School Policy. — Jolyet argues that : 

"In France silviculture has always aimed at securing regeneration by the play of 
natural forces alone, man intervening only for exploitation, so as to give more or less 
space to the crowns of trees selected as seed trees, and more or less light to the soil 
destined to receive the seed. Our silviculture teaches us, moreover, that artificial re- 
generation is not only onerous, but in addition gives poorer results. And this viewpoint 
is fully justified. In reality, if you plant or sow by day labor, you are forced for economy's 
sake to reduce to a minimum the quantity of seed, or the number of plants per unit of 
area . . . and the owner is forced to retain for as long a period as possible all these 
trees which have cost so much ; he will do his utmost to preserve even the most decrepit 
specimens . . . they will have, therefore, on the whole, a reduced vitality. On the 
contrary, if you employ natural regeneration, the seed trees sow on the soil of the 
cutting area without counting the seeds ; the seedlings come in excess numbers and in this 
mass of individuals, amongst which commences an active fight for existence, the weaker 
and less sturdy are eliminated by the most vigorous which remain masters of the soil. 
The stand will then be composed of trees selected by nature herself, on whose vitaUty 
and longevity you have the right to count." 

This latter argument is perhaps contrary to the reasoning of some who 
claim that young trees are only weakened by undue competition and 
that thinnings (made so as to favor the most vigorous trees) should 
eliminate this struggle to decide the survival of the fittest. But it re- 
mains a fact that with proper thinnings natural regeneration produces a 
finer forest than any feasible plantation and better than the average 
sown stand. 

Assist Nature. — But the forester knows from bitter experience that 
satisfactory regeneration cannot always be secured from nature alone; 
adverse soil conditions may have to be bettered, suitable seed trees may 



STUDY SOIL CONDITIONS 67 

be lacking, frost may destroy seedlings when it is too late to await natural 
regeneration longer. "It is rare," says Jolyet, "without question, when 
the conditions are such that any production of acorns or nuts is absolutely 
impossible; it is, on the other hand, quite common to find this production 
insufficient," 

To await natural regeneration under these conditions is, therefore, 
often poor forestry; particularly -with virgin stands which have not been 
under intensive forest management, it is often best to aid nature. In 
many German forests, it is argued that natural regeneration at best is 
difficult and uncertain and requires more time and consequently a longer 
rotation; so why not plant or sow at once and be done with it? In 
France, as already explained, the conditions are more favorable. In the 
Landes natural regeneration is almost certain ; in the silver fir reasonably 
certain; in the spruce or Scotch pine quite possible of attainment; in 
aleppo pine attainable; with beech usually certain, as with the oak, under 
favorable conditions. In mixture with beech the regeneration of the oak 
is often more difficult because it cannot compete with the more shade- 
enduring species. 

Study Soil Conditions. — It is, therefore, vital to thoroughly under- 
stand the properties, constitution, and influences of the forest soil upon 
the final results attained. Like agricultural soil the forest soil ^ is mineral 
and organic. But the forest soil is more complex and more difficult to 
keep in proper condition; moreover, conditions are constantly changing 
so that what are normal soil conditions at the beginning of the regenera- 
tion period should gradually change as the canopy is opened up. Forest 
soil has (1) a dead htter of leaves, twigs, bark; (2) a humus or decayed 
htter; (3) a vegetable soil or mixture of humus with the mineral soil; (4) 
a mineral soil coming from the decomposed rock, and (5) the base rock 
itself. It takes years to get a normal forest soil (that may be ruined by 
over-exposure or fire), while the agricultural soil can be acquired arti- 
ficially by introducing the necessary elements that may be lacking. Of 
these ingredients, in forest soils, humus is the most important. True 
forest humus is beneficial; on the contrary, acid humus is harmful and 
prevents or hinders regeneration. Acid humus, infrequent in French 
forests, may be due to a number of causes — insufficient heat, too much 
moisture, drought, or steriHty. In everyday practice the forester is 
troubled more by the physical texture of the soil and with the Htter and 
vegetable cover than by the chemical composition or the presence or 
absence of chemical ingredients. A soil baked by the sun or packed by 
gi-azing usually prevents regeneration, as does a cover of dry leaves, 
grass, sod, or weed growth. For example, a growth of heather under 

2 Traite Pratique de Sylviculture, Antoine Jolyet, Bailliere et Fils, Paris, pp. 298-358. 



68 NATURAL REGENERATION 

Scotch pine absolutely prevents reproduction. Jolyet holds that ''the 
depth of a soil from the rock base will be always greater in the forest 
than on bare ground. This is due to the greater rapidity of decomposi- 
tion, owing to the effect of water infiltration which is charged with car- 
bonic acid by percolating the litter." Forest soil is deepened not only by 
decomposition from the underlying rock, but also by the accumulation of 
humus from above. 

Every forester should study the depth ^ and character of soils. A deep- 
rooting tree on a shallow soil cannot develop its root system properly and 
normally, but on a shallow soil with an outcropping rock such trees as 
aleppo, mountain, or Austrian pine possess root systems that penetrate 
the rock fissures and make the most of a sterile soil. A soil covered with 
tree growth is always more porous than the same soil denuded. It is 
not enough for a soil to receive the water necessary for tree growth; water 
must be stored or retained in such form v lat it is available for use when 
required by the tree during the vegetative period. On a bare though 
porous soil the run-off is excessive. 

Soil Preparation. — Soil preparation is often necessary in any kind of 
cutting, yet in France the sentiment is everywhere in favor of natural 
regeneration, preferably without the additional expense of artificial soil 
preparation. But the more the system departs from nature's method, 
the more the soil must be worked. With the shelterwood system there 
must be more soil preparation than with the selection method. The sue-. 
cess of natural regeneration depends on the proper number and location 
of trees bearing seed, the right amount of light or shade for the develop- 
ment and existence of the young seedling, as well as upon proper texture 
of the ground free from weed cover. But it is only under the most favor- 
able conditions that some kind of soil preparation is not necessary for the 
successful regeneration of a species like spruce. In theory, the forest 
could wait until natural regeneration came in without assistance. In 
practice, the regeneration would often be incomplete; it would come in 
slowly and seed trees valuable for timber of the highest quality would 
decrease in value and become firewood. Even with very full seed crops 
some kind of assistance may have to be given natural regeneration usually 
for three reasons: (1) Because of a dense vegetable cover which prevents 
the seed coming in contact with the mineral soil ; (2) because of an exces- 
sive cover of undecomposed dead needles, or (3) because the surface of the 
soil itself is too compact. 

The vegetable cover is often too thick because, unfortunately, as trees 
mature their cover is less dense — especially with species like oak or 

3 Very shallow soil, less than 6 inches deep; shallow soil, less than 12 inches deep; 
slightly deep soil, less than 24 inches deep; deep soil, less than 3.28 feet deep; very deep 
soil, over 3.28 feet deep, — according to French classification. 



SOIL PREPARATION 69 

Scotch pine — consequently weeds and shrubs take possession of the 
soil. Under such conditions it is an obligatory rather than an optional 
expense to remove this cover. It is not always necessary to regularly cul- 
tivate the soil. On the contrary, it is usually better to keep the surface 
of the soil where the seed can reach it. It suffices, then, to tear up the 
vegetable cover. This work should be locaUzed on those areas where there 
are seed trees and where there is suitable light for seedlings. The opera- 
tion should be carried out only during the seed year, otherwise the vege- 
table cover will reinstate itself before any benefits have been received. 

In oak forests, where the regeneration is prevented by grass or herba- 
ceous growth (Jolyet, p. 362), the soil preparation must usually be carried 
out over the whole surface of the ground. The rake is the best imple- 
ment for this purpose. The seed crop cannot usually be determined 
accurately before the month of August, so that the work should not be- 
gin before this date, although it may be continued during and after the 
crop has fallen. In certain forests, it was the practice to drive hogs 
over the area to be seeded; this gave very fair results. The hogs ate up 
a large amount of seed no doubt, but in wounding the soil they gave a 
thorough soil preparation which cost nothing. In mature Scotch pine 
forests it is usual to find a cover of heather or shrubs which practically 
prevents regeneration. With a mattock or hoe it is usually possible to 
weed the area and encourage regeneration. The work is costly, no 
doubt, but it can be diminished by localizing the soil preparation on 
parallel strips or in spots. The cultivated strips should have a width 
of 5 feet and should be separated by uncultivated areas of about 10 feet. 
This would cover about one-third of the entire ground. Spots are even 
more economical; they may be 5 feet square and 10 feet apart. This 
covers about one-ninth of the total area. In spruce stands similar meth- 
ods may be of value. The choice of implements to use is usually gov- 
erned by local conditions, although in Germany the so-called forest 
plow is favored. It has but one wheel and is light enough so that one 
horse can pull it. It wounds the soil without actually turning it over, 
and is not sharp enough to cut the roots which it may cross. 

Where the leaf litter is too thick, as in certain pure stands where the 
dead leaves decompose very slowly, the roots of the seedling cannot be- 
come established in mineral soil before the summer drought. The top 
layer and humus dry out and this results in the death of the seedling. 
With a good, strong iron rake, dead needles can be mixed with the humus 
on spots about 29 inches square and 5 feet apart. In some forests in 
France a regular harrow is used for this work. Where the soil surface is 
too compact it must be wounded if the regeneration is to be a success. 
This is especially true on compact soils, such as clays, where there has 
been grazing before the seed felling. 



70 NATURAL REGENERATION 

FRENCH SILVICULTURAL METHODS 

Systems of Cutting. — French silviculture is especially simple. Where 
the German silviculturist may describe twenty or thirty different methods 
of cutting, French authors generally confine themselves to a comparatively 
few. Special methods of cutting, or variations from regulated systems, 
they leave to the individual silviculturist who uses his judgment in vary- 
ing standard methods so as to meet local conditions. These variations, 
as well as special emphasis on the object of cutting and method of attain- 
ing the end, are usually cited in the local working plan. The systems 
used in France are: (1) Clear cutting, (2) shelter wood (progressive cut- 
ting), (3) selection felHngs, (4) group feUings, (5) coppice, (6) coppice- 
under-standards, (7) conversions. A routine description of these stand- 
ard methods does not seem necessary, but instead the French method of 
application of silviculture to the more important species has been studied 
and cited. The illustrations are from original French working plans. 

The Market. — According to Huffel, forests have always played an 
important role in the national life. First, for hunting and food; then, 
until the Nineteenth Century, the forest furnished fuel, timber for houses 
and ships, tools and utensils, honey and wax, dead leaves for manure, 
nuts, various fruits, and resin. Grazing was important, and as late as 
1560 the forest of Haguenau in Alsace was described by the number of 
hogs it would support. Additional products were strawberries, rasp- 
berries, mushrooms, moss, plants, twigs, cones, heather, and ferns, much 
of which were collected by the poor, since the French have always con- 
sidered that "the forest is the cloak of the poor." In the present century, 
although the tendency is decidedly toward the production of saw timber, 
three-fourths of the output is still firewood. In 1815 Paris consumed 
0.50 cords per inhabitant; in 1865, 0.13, and in 1900, but 0.05 cords per 
inhabitant. Not only has the use of charcoal for cooking fallen off, but 
factories use coal to the almost total exclusion of wood or charcoal. The 
early writers, prior to the discovery of coal, often predicted a wood 
famine, and had not coal been discovered their predictions would have 
come true, because to supply the equivalent of the present coal consump- 
tion of France more than ten times the total forest area would be necessary. 
Fortunately for the timber resources the use of wood is becoming less and 
less. Iron was first used for shipbuilding in 1843; iron and cement have 
largely replaced wood for houses. The great demand to-day is for a good 
quality of boards, mine props, ties, paving blocks, wood pulp, tan bark, and 
cork, as well as for such products as turpentine, rosin, alcohol, etc. This 
rough summary of the decreasing use of wood products and the change in 
kind of material required is merely given as an illustration to show how 
necessary it is for the forester to study the future needs of the country. 



CLEAR CUTTING OAK 71 

He must be far-sighted, since he cannot count on present demands. Gener- 
ally speaking the world's industry demands more and more high forests 
for timber and fewer coppice forests for fuel and minor products. 



HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS ^ 

Clear Cutting Oak. — In the valley of the Adour [70] above Dax the 
pedunculate oak grows in areas subject to inundations and where agri- 
culture is not feasible. It is practically pure, with rapid growth and a 
remarkable longevity. These forests are celebrated for the enormous 
quantity and quality of the oak wood which they produce and especially, 
in former years, for the ship timber which was used when wooden battle- 
ships were built. With such a warm climate the trees are prolific seed 
producers. Abundant crops of seed are borne every year. On the other 
hand, late frosts must be guarded against. These high forests are not 
treated by any regular system since the fertility of the soil, coupled with 
its depth and freshness, enables the trees to seed and the seedling to live, 
notwithstanding the overstory of old trees and notwithstanding the 
underbrush; apparently the only danger is hog grazing, which does con- 
siderable damage, but in this wet region the growth of shrubs and vines 
is almost tropical in character and forms such a dense thicket that the 
young seedlings are in part protected against such injury. It is interest- 
ing to note that the seedlings, which in other parts of the country would 
be suppressed by the underbrush, shoot up through the entanglements, 
twisting their terminal shoots in the direction where there is most light. 
This results in the production of rather crooked trees. [74] These ped- 
unculate oak forests of the Adour are regenerated to-day very successfully 
by a simple system. Taking for granted that there are always acorns ready 
to germinate and that these will survive the cover of the old trees, the 
old trees are clear cut in one feUing. At the same time all the briars, un- 
dergrowth, oak seedlings (damaged by exploitation or suppressed by 
the cover) are cut level with the ground. The shoots from these very 
young stumps have practically the same qualities as seedlings. Al- 
most invariably this clear cutting will be followed by the development 
of an incalculable number of young oaks which rapidly cover the soil 
with a complete stand which in time develops into an oak high forest. 
In the valley of the Adour the growth of the young oak is sufficiently 
rapid so that cleanings are rarely necessary. Thinnings, on the con- 

^ Since the high forest systems are of paramount importance in the United States 
their apphcation to typical species has been given in detail. 

Note. — The bracketed numbers refer to page references in La Foret, by Boppe, the 
source of much of this material. 



72 NATURAL REGENERATION 

trary, are very important in all the young stands. With clear cutting it 
is naturally necessary to regulate grazing. On account of the richness of 
the soil the grazing is quite valuable, and the communes even insist on the 
clearing out of the briars and underbrush which formerly protected the 
young oak. Under these conditions the grazing is prohibited two years 
before the clear cutting in order to enable the seedlings to establish them- 
selves to the very best advantage, and in addition the area cut over is 
closed for 12 years after felhng operations [75], making 14 years of closure. 
Clear Cutting Maritime Pine. — The maritime pine is essentially a 
light-demanding tree, and while it can stand the average winter in the 
northeast of France it cannot withstand unusual cold. It furnishes an 
abundance of seed every year with remarkable regularity. It was for- 
merly treated by a sort of crude selection system. The great importance 
of the tree is on account of its resin production. Formerly it was tapped 
for resin and when a tree was dying it was cut. In these openings the 
young seedlings came up but developed poorly because there was in- 
sufficient light. On account of the prolific seed production after clear 
cutting and because cones open under the effect of the sun's heat, after 
the trees are felled, it is essential that the species be clear cut. Scattered 
seed trees after felling are unnecessary. The young seedlings develop 
excellently in full sunlight and are neither damaged by the heat nor by 
the spring frosts. According to the working plan for the State forest of 
Carcans the following silvicultural operations are in force: 

"1. Successive regeneration by clear cutting preceded by tapping to death. 

"2. Thinning by tapping to death the superfluous stems of those which are of poor 
quality after the trees reach 26 years of age. Tapping alive trees which have reached a 
diameter of 13 inches. 

"3. Thinnings in young stands in order to obviate the extremely slow growth of 
very dense stands." 

It should be noted that the maritime pine immediately bordering the 
ocean is never clear cut but is maintained as a protection belt against the 
sand dunes. Only dead and dying trees are cut from this shelter belt. 
As a matter of fact the trees, owing to the wind, are inferior in quality 
and stunted in growth. 

Clear Cutting Aleppo Pine. — On account of the dry soil conditions 
which are prevalent in aleppo pine or stone pine forests, clear cutting 
is rarely advisable (see pp. 88-89). The forester in charge of the impor- 
tant aleppo pine forests around Marseilles uses a conservative group- 
selection system, making it a point never to expose the soil. 

Spruce Strip Fellings. — Notwithstanding the development of various 
forms of strip fellings in Germany and Switzerland, they have not been 
practiced to any extent in France. This is only another illustration of 



SEED FELLING 73 

the simplicity of French silviculture and the absence of variations from 
the few standard systems of cutting which have been in use for centuries. 
The keynote to French practice is that the method of natural regenera- 
tion should closely approximate nature's method. "Strip cuttings," 
according to Jolyet, "are nothing more than a variation of clear cutting." 
In theory, at least, it should succeed with spruce, provided the strips are 
not too wide. They should be in the shape of long rectangles and should 
extend up and down the slope with their axis preferably at right angles to 
the prevailing wind. Since this method of cutting has not been de- 
veloped by French silviculture, the details will not be discussed here. 

Shelterwood Cuttings in Oak. — Some of the best high forests [81] of 
France are composed of sessile oak (with some beech in mixture) on sandy 
loam soil. These soils are often quite sandy in character and yet splendid 
forests, such as Perseigne, Berce, Blois, Senonches, Belleme, result. 
Thanks to the mild climate, the acorn crop is frequent but by no means 
annual, as in the valley of the Adour. In this region an acorn crop can be 
counted on every 6 to 8 years; besides the sandy soil is particularly favor- 
able to natural seeding. In former days hunting to hounds was ex- 
tremely popular, so that it was fortunately necessary to have high forests 
rather than coppice. The first regular method of cutting applied to these 
high forests was the so-called "tire et aire" — successive clear cutting 
with a reservation of eight seed trees per hectare (2.5 acres). Unfor- 
tunately the acorn crop did not always correspond with the year of re- 
generation felling and the soil was soon covered with weeds and heather. 
It is ordinarily sufficient, however, to have an acorn crop the year before 
felling, or at least within two or three years after. 

To-day these oak (beech) forests are treated by what the French call 
the method of progressive ^ felhngs (shelterwood system), or "system of 
natural regeneration and thinnings." This method means felhng not at 
one time by a clear cutting, but instead by a number of cuttings succeed- 
ing one another and removing progressively all the old trees. These cut- 
tings are called seed fellings, secondary fellings, and final felhngs which 
together constitute the regeneration fellings. 

Seed Felling. — Seed felling, as the term implies, aims at starting 
regeneration. In order that the seedlings may start two things are 
necessary : plenty of seed and a chance for development for the seedHngs 
after they have germinated. Three steps comprise these seed fellings: 
(1) The crowns of a certain number of trees designated as seed trees are 
isolated. This gives hght for the development of the seed trees as well 
as for the development of the existing seedlings. The isolation of these 

^Also termed "regular method" for high forests. The French have never copied 
the German term "shelterwood." They prefer "progressive cutting" (coupes pro- 
gressives) . 



74 NATURAL REGENERATION 

crowns may vary. A so-called "dark" felling, according to Bagneris, is 
when the lateral branches of the crowns of the reserved trees touch when 
the wind is blowing. In an "open" or "light" felHng the space between 
the crowns may be 7 to 16 or 20 feet. A "dark" felhng has this advan- 
tage, in that the seed trees are more numerous, the acorns are better 
scattered over the entire surface of the felling area, and the seedlings are 
better protected against the late frosts. The trees chosen for seed trees 
must be sound and must have well developed crowns. (2) All trees, 
other than seed trees, whose foliage extends to the ground and is therefore 
suppressing seedhngs, are removed. Beech, or hornbeam, which often 
forms a valuable understory in order to preserve soil conditions up to the 
time of the seed felling, is cut. (3) If the soil is covered with weeds they 
are cut level with the ground, as are also oak advance growth unsuit- 
able for future regeneration. The soil, after a seed felling, must be 
cleared of all low growth. If necessary, the surface of the soil is loos- 
ened by wounding it. A successful seed felling is where there are one 
or two seedlings per square yard. Often there is practically a carpet of 
young oak. 

Secondary Fellings. — The next step is to gradually remove the seed 
trees and to gradually free the existing seedlings without causing too 
much damage. These secondary felhngs in oak stands are usually two 
or three in number. Care should be taken not to expose the existing 
seedhngs to late frosts, not to damage too many seedlings in the lumber- 
ing operations, and to retain enough seed trees in localities where seed- 
lings have failed. It is also essential not to remove the seed trees so 
rapidly that the ground may run wild to weeds. The best time to mark 
secondary fellings is during the summer, since the state of the vegetation 
can be more accurately determined. The removal depends primarily on 
the condition of the ground. If the seed crop is poor it may be necessary 
to again cut back the weeds and to wound the soil. If, on the other hand, 
the seedling growth is very luxuriant, cutting can be much heavier. The 
result of the secondary felling is to increase the growth and development 
of the seedling crop and to enable it to maintain possession of the ground. 

Final Felling. — As soon as the young crop is complete and the first 
seedlings have developed into saphngs, it is time for the final felling, which 
is really a final secondary felling and which is generally termed final fell- 
ing. This feUing merely removes the remainder of the seed trees at one 
stroke, since it is rarely advisable to hold over a few seed trees even where 
regeneration may be lacking in a few spots. When seed trees are held 
over it means that very valuable timber decreases in value, since as soon 
as these mature oaks are isolated, epicormic [92] branches develop, the 
crown deteriorates, large branches die, and there is great danger of rot 
or damage from insects. The regular high forest (shelterwood) aims at 



FINAL FELLING 75 

the complete natural regeneration of the proper species of uniform age. 
It has the advantage of preserving the soil and of producing regularly- 
formed trees, but the disadvantage of possible damage from insects, snow- 
wind, and weeds unless the species are mixed. 

According to De Gail ^ the regular shelterwood system was adopted all 
over France during the last half of the last century. 

"The rotation was divided into a certain number of periods, generally of equal 
length, frequently four or five. For each one of these periods there was a corresponding 
periodic block on the ground. During each of the periods the corresponding block had 
to be regenerated while the others were run over by improvement cuttings. The 
volume to be removed 'each year in the regeneration fellings formed the chief yield and 
was the quotient of the existing volume in the periodic block in question, growth in- 
cluded, divided by the number of years forming the period. Improvement fellings were 
assigned by area at regular intervals, the volume to be realized remaining unfixed." 

The objection to this system was that it was good in theory but did not 
work out on the ground. Too many sacrifices had to be made for regu- 
larity, and damage resulted from fire, wind, and insects. Very fre- 
quently the whole scheme was disarranged by unforeseen damage, and 
yet the working-plan scheme depended for its success on orderly ar- 
rangement. Exactly the same yield was unnecessary each year, but 
great differences had a bad effect on the regulation, as, for example, after 
an enormous cut following an unforeseen windfall. In 1878 an endeavor 
was made to correct the weakness by first subtracting accidental yields 
from the major yield before the regular annual cut was prescribed. But 
even this was not entirely satisfactory, chiefly on account of windfall in 
such regions as the Jura and Vosges. 

The forest of Paridas working plan stated that during the regeneration 
of this oak forest it is usually necessary to fence to prevent damage from 
game. The old oak is growing close together and very heavy openings are 
made in this stand, since the luxuriant grass crop seems to assist the oak 
regeneration inasmuch as it freshens the soil. After regeneration cutting 
there are about 80 trees per acre with the openings often 100 feet across. 
Occasionally the cuttings are made lighter because of the danger of briars 
and weeds. There is very rapid growth and the rotation is 120 years. 
Where thickets of blackberries have come in they are removed at the first 
cleaning when the reproduction is 12 to 15 years old. If cut earlier they 
spring up again. There has been some damage to the oak from the 
"sidium" disease, which must be sprayed with salt as a curative and pre- 
ventive, but there is danger of the salt hurting the roots. Where the oak 
stands are very dense there is much less seed, as is illustrated by condi- 
tions in the Paridas forest. The oak sometimes comes in even in dense 
heather but frequently it is necessary to cut strips in the heather to en- 

^ Nouvelles Tendances et Methodes d'Amenagement, No. 2, 1907, S. F. deF. C. et B. 



76 NATURAL REGENERATION 

courage regeneration. The regeneration period is 30 years. Light thin- 
nings are made every 10 years, and usually after 35 years the canopy of 
the crowns is complete. 

Shelterwood for Beech. — Beech forests are still important in France 
[130] on the Parisian Plateau, on the Plateaus of Lorraine, Bourgogne, 
Franche-Comte, on the lower mountain slopes of these regions, and on 
all the mountains in the fir zone. The regeneration of beech is always by 
the shelterwood method (progressive fellings), but regeneration by clear 
felling is absolutely impossible, since the beech seedlings are very susceptible 
to damage from late frosts and from drying out. While it is true that the 
mast is not more frequent than the acorn crop, yet it is easier to secure 
beech seedhngs, since on account of its tolerant quality the advance 
growth is often existing at the time of the seed felling, even if the cover is 
considerable, whereas the oak seedling must be freed from overhead 
cover. This step is not so necessary with the beech since it is so tolerant. 
There is less danger of the beech seedlings being damaged by weeds or 
briars than of the oak. The seed felling with the beech is always hght, 
since the seedlings cannot stand a rapid opening up. When there is a 
thick carpet of undecomposed dead leaves on the ground wounding the 
soil is quite necessary in order to expose the humus. This is sometimes 
secured by driving hogs through the area just before the seed felling, in 
order to let them, without expense, dig up the weeds and wound the soil. 
Frequently it is sufficient to let in enough light to eat up the leaf cover. 
The secondary fellings are also "dark," and often it is necessary to hold 
over trees which should be felled, on account of the danger of making too 
large openings. This means that instead of two or three secondary fell- 
ings, as with the oak, it may be necessary with the beech to make three 
or four secondary fellings. This has no drawbacks since the young beech 
seedlings can stand the shade of the seed trees. The final felling is made 
as soon as the seedlings have grown to the sapling stage and it should 
not be held over too long because of the damage which results to the 
saplings. The final felling always removes all the remaining trees. 

Shelterwood for Oak=Beech. — A feature of oak and beech naturally 
regenerated is the maintenance of the soil in good condition and a suit- 
able mixture of beech in the understory. The tolerant beech always has a 
tendency to take possession of the soil and therefore it is often necessary 
to favor the oak. This can be done by reserving more oak seed trees in 
the seed felhng and by cutting the beech in the understory, by hastening 
the secondary felling and making it rather open wherever oak seedhngs 
have established themselves. Otherwise, they may be crowded by the 
tolerant beech. The seedling of the oak may be favored by wounding 
the soil. When the seedlings are freed, and in the thinning, the oak also 
may be favored. According to Inspecteur Badre it is very difficult to 



SHELTERWOOD FOR OAK-BEECH 77 

maintain beech and oak in mixture, side by side, for the beech always 
dominates the oak unless it is progressively freed from the surrounding 
beech. The most practical solution is to grow the oak in small groups, 
which can often survive the struggle with similar groups of beech without 
assistance. The forest of Pare et St. Quentin has had working plans 
made in 1869, 1884, and 1905. As a result of experience a rotation for 
120 years was found too short because of the large proportion of oak. 
It was, therefore, increased to 150 years. Where there is difficulty in 
regeneration, according to the following most recent working plan, the 
cuttings would be regulated according to seed crops rather than to the 
sequence of fellings as developed : 

"The density of the seed fellings will be regulated so as to allow for the requirements 
of the species — oak and beech — which should be forced into the proper mixture 
(about half and half). The existing understory must be completely removed above 
this size, and under no pretext whatever should it be allowed to form part of the future 
stand. The seed fellings will be followed by secondary and final fellings laid out ex- 
clusively according to the cultural needs. The improvement cuttings should aim at 
the establishment of a high forest with a suitable mixture of species and as fully stocked 
as possible; they will be carried out by the use of regular normal thinnings, the removals 
limited to trees already dead or almost wholly so. . . . In the young stands the 
valuable species will be carefully freed and, in accordance with their needs, the softwoods 
and species of secondary value will be sacrificed." 

The working plan of the forest of Malmifait is as follows : 

"The regeneration fellings which remain to be carried out during the second period, 
consist solely of secondary and final fellings. The secondary fellings will be made care- 
fully according to the amount and vigor of the existing reproduction. Where considered 
advantageous, the natural seeding will be assisted by soil preparation during seed years, 
coupled with the dibbling of acorns and beech nuts if necessary; this will be supple- 
mented, if need be, by plantations which will be set out in systematic lines in order to 
make future clearings easier and cheaper. Seedlings and plants must always be pro- 
tected at the start against the briars and the grass, as well as sprouts of species of secon- 
dary value. The final felling will take place as soon as regeneration is secured, and with- 
out too much delay, in order to lessen the damage, always considerable, caused by the 
exploitation and removal of the trees. When the cutting area is completely cleared, all 
the damaged stems must be cut back. It will be carefully seen to that the game, espe- 
cially the wild boar and hares, do not increase to an excessive degree. Thanks to this 
precaution it will be unnecessary to build wire fences, which are very expensive and 
which usually give only mediocre results, around the compartments recently seeded; 
especially since the patrol force of the Malmifait forest is composed of a single employee 
who, without question, would find it difficult to maintain the fences in good order and 
to watch continually the rabbit holes. But in the areas where the mammals are most 
dangerous, it may be unsafe to start reforestation by means of plants, whose stems 
should be protected by wire netting fastened to stakes." 

An interesting example of field practice in marking ^ shelterwood fell- 
ings was studied in the oak-beech forest of Pare et St. Quentin. Before 

^ In France the marking hammers are kept locked up by the forest assistant or in- 
spector, and when trees are marked they are stamped both on the roots and at breast- 



78 NATUR.\L REGENERATION 

beginning the inspector explained to the rangers the fine points of the 
marking. In the area marked he illustrated the need of favoring beech, 
especially trees with well-developed crowns,, on account of the necessity 
for plenty of seed. The trees cut were calipered and every record checked 
by being repeated by the tallyman. All poor trees were cut, notwith- 
standing the need of beech in mixture on account of its being insufficient. 
The marking passed the long way with the cutting area, and in some 
places it was noticed that regeneration was protected against rabbits by 
wire netting. The marking was very carefully executed, and the first 
time the rangers went over the felling area they merely blazed the trees 
to be cut. As a protection they went over this same area a second time 
to see whether mistakes had been made. At this second trip they 
stamped and blazed the roots of the trees left, and in addition, because of 
their great value, tallied the number of large trees left standing. It was 
explained that seed felhngs were held up in 1911 and 1912 because of poor 
seed years. The local inspector favored seed fellings by area as well as 
improvement cuttings by area, since it would obviate extensive calcula- 
tions of yield. 

Shelterwood for Maritime Pine. — The shelterwood system should 
never be applied to maritime pine. Clear cutting is, and must be, the 
invariable rule except in protection belts along the dunes. 

Shelterwood for Scotch Pine. — The shelterwood system is sometimes 
applied to Scotch pine. Here the seed felling is made very open, the 
secondary fellings are delayed and are rarely more than one or two in 
number and the final felling comes early. It really takes on the aspect 
of clear cutting with the reservation of seed trees [160]. The forest of 
Ermenonville presents an interesting study in the treatment of Scotch 
pine in the Paris region.-^ The soil in the fourth, fifth, and sixth working 
circles of this forest is quite sterile over some 3,672 acres and therefore 
unsuitable for broadleaves. The rotation is 80 years of eight periods and 
the regeneration is nominally by the shelterwood system, although the 
results thus far, without sufficient artificial assistance, are very imperfect. 
The, forty to sixty seed trees per acre are chosen with care and distributed 

height. The trees marked for any cutting are usually tallied by five-centimeter classes 
(2 inches) . If any marked tree is blazed twice on the bole it means that it must he limbed 
and the top cut off before it is felled to prevent damage to existing reproduction. The 
forest guards check the cutting after it is finished and go to every stump to see if the 
tree was marked. If all right the stump is stamped on the top. The guards and rangers 
are always on the lookout for windfall and dead wood. When found the tree is numbered 
consecutively and the following data secured : serial number, circumference, and general 
location. It is a guard's special duty to look out for windfalls in spring so that they may 
be disposed of while they are still salable. 

^ Traitement du pin sylvestre dans la region de Paris, par L. Parde, Nos. 19 and 20, 
March 1 and 15, 1905. Revue des Eaux et Forets. 



SHELTERWOOD FOR SCOTCH PINE 79 

as uniformly as possible over the area. The soil is cleared of brush, cones, 
and needles, either in strips or in spots, and there is artificial sowing where 
young seed trees are available. According to Parde : 

"If necessary the regeneration will be completed by plantations at the time of the 
first improvement felling when the seed trees will be cut. For my part, I confess that 
I am now rather disposed to admit that, so far as the Scotch pine high forests around 
Paris are concerned, the regeneration by artificial means would be preferable to the 
shelterwood method actually followed." 

Various steps have been taken to assist regeneration, such as raldng 
strips and spots during the seed years; in addition the young seedlings 
are sheltered by means of branches, which is apparently very favorable 
to their development. If the natural seeding fails the plantations must 
be made promptly before waiting for the first improvement cutting. 
Assisting regeneration in this locality has cost as much as S8.70 per acre, 
while restocking blanks costs about $12.19 (1905 labor prices). Not- 
withstanding the expense of $8.70 for soil preparation, the regeneration 
is in poor shape, due to local droughts. Even with a large number of 
seed trees retained, the cost in windfalls has been heavy. 

In the forest of Fontainebleau there are some 822 acres of Scotch pine. 
The regular rotation is 72 years and the same methods have been applied 
as in the forest of Ermenonville. Probably one-tenth of the surface has 
been naturally seeded, chiefly from advance growth rather than from the 
results of seed felhngs. In the forest of Rambouillet, on 4,942 acres of 
Scotch pine, but 680 acres have been regenerated successfully. According 
to Parde: 

"In practice the preparation of the soil has consisted in a light harrowing which 
removes the very thick mat which covers the soil; this mat is piled up at the foot of the 
reserved trees. The harrowing is followed with broadcast seeding, 6.2 pounds per acre, 
when, in order to work the seed into the soil, it is again harrowed lightly and covered 
with branches." 

Even after soil preparation regeneration has not been successful, and 
it will be necessary to sow or plant artificially. Probably it will be nec- 
essary to abandon the seed trees and to cut clean and sow broadcast by 
the method described above. The conclusion reached, as a result of the 
attempt of natural regeneration of Scotch pine around Paris, is that 
the present shelterwood system will probably be abandoned, at least 
until further experiments determine upon a successful method. Appar- 
ently it is unnecessary to leave seed trees scattered over the area under 
regeneration, since these trees are damaged by windfall and their extrac- 
tion damages seedlings, increases the area under fellings, and makes the 
protection against game more difficult. Experiments are recommended with 
the two following systems : 



80 NATURAL REGENERATION 

1. Cut clear strips at right angles to the wind and remove the stumps. 
Clear the ground cover and harrow. Sow artificially with protection of 
branches. If seeding does not take place within a few years plant at 
once before the ground cover comes back. Never wait more than five 
years. 

2. Proceed as in the case of the system described above, but with the 
reservation of seed trees. 

Of the two methods, the one without seed trees is probably preferable. 
The product would sell better; there would be no windfall; insect damage 
would be lessened; with the surface completely cleared, temporary nur- 
series would be more conveniently established where planting was neces- 
sary; fencing would be less costly; there would be no damage to young 
stock in the final fellings. 

Shelterwood for Fir. — In order to secure fir regeneration it is necessary 
to have a deep fresh soil and a humid chmate; the chemical composition is 
less important. In order that fir seedlings may develop properly it is neces- 
sary to preserve the shelter of the cover stand as a protection against dry- 
ing out and against spring frosts. It is also necessary to have a thick humus 
cover and a protection against summer drought and weeds. The seedlings 
establish themselves under the immediate shelter of the seed trees. In 
every case the young seedlings develop naturally during the first five to 
ten years under the cover of the mother stand. Therefore, any system 
of clear felUng is out of the question, but the shelterwood method may be 
successfully used. In fir stands advance growth almost always exists, 
therefore the seed felling is really a light secondary felling, since its object 
is to allow this advance growth to develop. This first secondary felling 
or seed felling is made very conservative so as to remove the cover gradu- 
ally and not to expose the seedlings to drying out or to permit weeds to 
take possession of the soil. Even if suppressed for a number of years, fir 
seedlings have the ability to develop into good trees after the cover has 
been removed. The other secondary fellings which follow should also be 
"dark," since a gradual removal of the cover is essential. On the other 
hand, the final felling should always be complete on account of the danger 
from windfall and because of the damage which results to the old isolated 
trees from drying out. De Gail has shown (see p. 75) that because of 
windfall and the consequent irregularity of the stand (and derangement 
of working plans) the shelterwood system for fir is fast proving unsuccess- 
ful. An excellent illustration of the derangement of working plan yields 
by windfall is in the forest of Gerardmer (Vosges). On September 1, 
1908, the inspector reported that, in the first, third, fourth, sixth, seventh, 
and eighth working circles, which had a prescribed annual yield of 11,971 
cubic meters, on account of tremendous windfalls 46,378 cubic meters, or 
the yield for almost four years, had already been cut. As a result of the 



SHELTERWOOD FOR SPRUCE 81 

windfalls of 1902 the conservator favored a return to an irregular selec- 
tion instead of the shelterwood system. The selection preferred is one 
regulated by volume and by area. In the fir forest of Noiremont (Jura) 
the seed felhng removes practically two-fifths of the volume, the two 
secondary fellings one-fifth each, and the final fellings one-fifth. After 
the final felling in this forest there were openings 33 feet across where the 
parent trees had been cut. Here the openings were being planted up. 
The improvement fellings in this forest, regulated by area, remove the 
badly suppressed trees, badly formed trees, those dry topped, and the so- 
called "wolf" trees. But even under the favorable conditions existing 
the shelterwood system may be abandoned. In the forest of Risol they 
have a rule of cutting not more than 100 cubic meters per hectare at one 
time. According to the ranger's records: 

"Cultural operations should always be directed with the aim of developing as much 
as possible the growth of existing stands without sacrificing anything for regularization. 
The ripe trees should always be removed when encountered in the fellings, but on condi- 
tion that their retention is not considered necessary for reproduction." 

In the saphng stands the dominant beech is almost invariably cut. In 
the pole stands the suppressed and damaged trees are removed, and in the 
high pole stands quite heavy thinnings in the top story are begun. All 
beech not needed for reproduction is removed. 

Shelterwood for Spruce. — While the spruce is not essentially a 
tolerant species hke the fir, yet it is not exactly a hght-demanding species 
like the oak; it does not grow while under direct cover, and while it will 
come in naturally on pastures, some side cover is desirable on account of 
its demanding fresh soil. It is deeper rooted than the fir and more 
difficult to secure. The seed of the fir is quite heavy, is of average size, 
and cannot be carried great distances. On the other hand, most of the 
cones are at the top of the tree; they open, not because of the heat, but 
because of the moisture at the end of the September rains. The spruce 
cones, to the contrary, are lower down on the tree and most of them are 
found at the ends of the branches ; they open under the influence of heat, 
especially when the dry east wind is blowing, so that the seed may be 
carried some distance from the tree. Moreover, the spruce seed does not 
germinate well under the immediate cover of the mother tree nor do the 
seedlings germinate successfully on dry needles, therefore the best condi- 
tions for the germination of spruce seedhngs are openings in the mature 
stands, exposed to the full sunlight, and where the mineral soil is at least 
partially bared. In theory, at least, the shelterwood method of pro- 
gressive fellings is apphcable to this species, but unfortunately there are 
difficulties. The tree is subject to windfall on account of its superficial 
root system and the heavy fohage. It is therefore necessary to make the 



82 NATURAL REGENERATION 

seed fellings conservatively but, after the seedlings are once established, 
to cut the mature stand very rapidly [193]. As with the fir, the shelter- 
wood system has not been wholly successful. 

Shelterwood for Fir and Spruce in Mixture. — Fir and spruce are very 
often found in mixture. From the economic viewpoint they have about 
the same value. It is silvicultm-ally advisable to have them in mixture 
since, when mixed, insect and fimgous damage is not so dangerous and the 
soil is better conserved. When in mixture advance growth of fir is quite 
common under the old stand. It is therefore necessary to fell old trees 
here and there in order to enable the spruce to profit by the light and 
establish itself in the center of the openings. While the advance growth 
of the fir has the advantage of age the spruce seedlings develop more 
rapidly and make an excellent mixture. The more you want to favor the 
spruce the larger the openings should be made. It is also advisable to 
favor it by wounding the soil. The mixture can be regulated in the clean- 
ings and thinnings that follow [202]. 

The Selection System in Broadleaf Stands (Beech). — In practice 
the [137] treatment by selection fellings is not systematically applied 
in France to broadleaves. The beech is an exception. Because of the 
irregularity of beech regeneration, even if treated by the method of pro- 
gressive fellings, it may often assume the character of a selection forest. 
The beech may be treated under the selection system except in those 
forests where it is mixed with fir. In theory, at least, the selection system 
is very simple. In the working plan the exploitable or maximum size of 
trees is given and the amount, either in number of trees or in cubic 
meters, that should be cut each year. The entire forest is cut over, and 
trees above the stated diameter limit are removed to the amount of the 
estimated yield. In practice the forest is often divided into a number of 
compartments and, for the sake of economy in lumbering, the selection 
fellings are concentrated on a portion of the forest. Selection fellings 
avoid the crisis of regeneration which other more regular methods pre- 
cipitate at the time of the seed fellings. Moreover, the classic selection 
felling is only suitable to shade-enduring species. Selection fellings 
mean irregularity as opposed to the regularity of clear cutting, shelter- 
wood (progressive fellings), etc., [213]. Practically speaking the classic 
selection fellings of a few trees from the entire area under treatment is 
never applied in France except possibly in the sub-alpine forests where, 
in order to assist the forest in its struggle for existence against unfavor- 
able climate and soil conditions, a light selection (or improvement) fell- 
ing is usually employed. Clear cutting, even by strips or by the shelter- 
wood method, is extremely dangerous in the mountains, but in the sub- 
alpine forests, where the larch is one of the most important species, the 
simple selection felling becomes a group selection, since the larch (see 



FIR SELECTION FELLINGS 83 

p. 89) is a light-demanding species and considerable openings in the 
stand must be made. With cembric pine, or mountain pine, the openings 
can be much smaller and the removal of a single tree is sufficient. With- 
out question the tendency in France, as in other European countries, is 
away from the original tree selection. Instead, especially with somewhat 
intolerant trees, the practice is now to cut in groups so that, preferably, 
there are clumps of even-aged trees all over the forest which can be 
thinned. 

Fir Selection Fellings. — In theory, at least, the fir should be treated 
under selection fellings except for the chfiiculty of lumbering all over a 
forest and the danger on the other hand of compressing fellings into too 
small an area and thereby making too great openings. Consequently, 
in fir forests, selection fellings run over the same area on an average of 
every eight years, removing about 12\ per cent of the stand. For this 
reason, even in fir stands, the selection assumes the character of a group 
or hole selection system. At high altitudes, in theory, the per cent re- 
moved at one time should be small, but in practice as high as 18 or 20 per 
cent may be cut in order to make logging feasible. For example, in the 
communal forest of Cette-Eygun (p. 17 of the working plan) the method 
of exploitation is as follows: 

"These two working groups will be treated by the selection method; the high altitude, 
the severe cHmate, the danger of avalanches, the slowness of reproduction at the higher 
elevations, the control of water flow, the obligation in a country habitually and essen- 
tially pastoral to keep stands open for grazing so far as possible, necessitates maintaining 
a dense forest on all areas and slopes, and ratifies the choice of this selection method for 
all regulated mountainous forests." 

About 18 per cent of the stand is cut at one time. 
Mathey argues (Societe de Franche-Comte et Belfort) that to obtain the 
regeneration of spruce in the Alpine forests, the following are necessary: 

1. Maintain shelter belts and groups of trees as a precaution. 

2. Encourage the mixture of broadleaf trees and conifers so that the 
former comprise at least 12 per cent of the upper story and 13 per cent of 
the lower story, or 25 per cent in all. 

3. Remove the sod in spots where it is desired to favor the develop- 
ment of seedhngs. 

4. Cut conservatively. In the lower working group cut every 6 or 8 
years over the same area. In the average worldng group (4,000 to 5,000 
feet altitude) cut every 10 to 12 years, and in the upper working group 
(5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude) cut only every 14 to 16 years. Areas above 
6,000 feet should be considered zones of protection solely. It is abso- 
lutely essential to be conservative in the treatment of these forests. 

For the best management of a selection forest it is necessary for the 



84 



NATURAL REGENERATION 



forester to have in mind the normal or average local number of trees per 
acre for the different diameter classes ; then by a comparison of the normal 
with the actual stand it can be determined whether the forest has too 
many or too few trees of the different size classes. Such data would be a 
guide to determine from what diameter classes in a selection forest trees 
should preferably be cut. The following table, compiled by Huffel, 
shows average figures per acre for fir in different regions. 

TABLE 7.— AVERAGE FIGURES PER ACRE FOR FIR 





Number of fir trees per acre 


Diameter, 












breast-high, 
inches 


Alpes 

(average 
for 


Vosges 

Lorraine 

slope 


French Jura Mountains 


Pre-Alpes 
of Dauphine 










toward 




Savoie) 


Low 


Average 


High 


3,200 to 3,460 feet 


6 <» 




12.0 
8.4 








12.0 


8 


3.2 


9.4 


10 


2.1 


6.0 


32.0 


6.4 


2.3 


7.0 


12 


1.6 


4.3 


26.8 


5.6 


1.9 


5.1 


14 


1.2 


3.1 


21.2 


4.2 


1.5 


3.6 


16 


1.0 


2.2 


17.8 


3.5 


1.2 


2.6 


18 


0.8 


1.6 


12.9 


2.6 


0.9 


1.7 


20 


0.6 


1.1 


9.2 


1.8 


0.6 


1.0 


22 


0.5 


0.8 


6.1 


1.2 


0.5 


0.6 


24 


0.4 


0.6 


3.4 


0.7 


0.4 


0.4 


26 




0.4 


2.4 
1.4 
0.9 
0.5 
0.4 
135.0 


0.5 
0.4 

26.9 


9^3 




28 






30 








32 








34 








Total 


11.4 


40.5 


43.4 



<» Smaller trees are not calipered. 



Schaeffer ^ gives the following formula for the management of a 
selection forest: 

"1. Establish a curve of a normal high forest, as has been indicated (see p. 214) 
according to the existing stand. 

"2. Calculate the yield by any method (if you wish, even by the number of trees), 
provided it is simple, taking care to adopt a figure less than the maximum yield which 
has been determined. . . . 

"3. First cut the over-stocked age classes. 

"4. Arrange for periodic stocktaking in order to revise the yield and to make sure 
that it approaches the type of forest desired." 

Spruce Selection Fellings. — Contrary to fir forests it is rare that ad- 
vance growth is found under the parent spruce stand. Therefore, selec- 
tion by groups or holes is always necessary, since it assures the regenera- 

^ Un Type de Futaie Jardinee, S. F. de F. C. et B., A. S. 




Fig. 7 (a). — Natural regeneration of spruce in the openings where it has sufficient 
Hght. Under partial cover the seedlings have not as yet come in. 

(6). — Spruce stand in the Melezet Canton, communal forest of Villarodin-Bourget, 
running 146 trees per acre and 109 cubic meters (36,000 feet board measure). Here 
selection fellings removed trees declining in vigor until openings have gradually been 
made. Since the soil became partially sodded and covered with spruce needles no 
regeneration has succeeded. Had the openings been made at once, instead of gradu- 
ally, the reproduction would have been secured. 

(c)-(d). — Natural regeneration of spruce in the Melezet Canton, communal forest 
of Villarodin-Bourget, at an altitude of 6,060 feet. No regeneration of spruce came in 
after ordinary selection cuttings, which removed only a tree here and there. After a 
windfall gave sufficient light (and wounded the soil) reproduction has succeeded in the 
following proportions : Spruce, six-tenths; larch, three-tenths; cembric pine, one-tenth. 

(85) 



86 NATURAL REGENERATION 

tion a sufficient amount of light and at the same time it does not open up 
the forest enough to allow weeds to come in (see Fig. 7, ^ to D). The 
openings made are not quite so large as in the Scotch pine, because the 
spruce does not demand the same amount of hght. Frequently in spruce 
stands the felHng of one large tree makes an opening large enough to 
favor the introduction of spruce seedlings, although usually two, three, 
four, and even five trees may be cut [199]. 

A study of the spruce stand in the Savoie, by Thiolher (see Fig. 7), 
showed that, on the whole, regeneration is difficult. In a wet, mild 
climate, at lower altitudes, the spruce behaves much like the silver fir, 
but at higher altitudes the spruce must be differently handled. To 
secure spruce regeneration: 

(a) The seed must come in contact with fresh mineral soil, or soil 
covered with humus of another species. If, for example, the ground is 
covered with grass, or spruce litter, this must be worked and the soil 
bared. 

(b) Isolated spruce saplings suffer fi'om the snow, so every effort should 
be made to secure clumps or groups for regeneration. 

(c) To secure thrifty, well-developed crowns, early and frequent thin- 
nings are indispensable; but if too heavy the height growth is decreased, 
the cover is broken, and the trees become branchy; if too light, or if begun 
too late, the growth is slow and the trees are never really merchantable 
for timber. 

(d) Since the spruce requires full sunhght for best development it is 
best grown in even-aged clumps or stands. But since it is so liable to 
windfall some form of selection fellings is desirable and necessary at these 
altitudes. This shows the vital necessity of not practicing a selection 
system by cutting single trees but rather groups of trees. These groups 
are then developed by successive cutting into fairly even-aged stands. 
Thiolher stated to the author personally that these three cultural rules 
should therefore be followed: 

"1. The young stands must always be kept dense; the thinnings should only remove 
trees without a future and free the crowns of the best stems without ever opening up 
the stand. 

"2. When a stand or a clump becomes of exploitable age, to regenerate it; make 
openings (or holes) whose size varies with the altitude, the kind of soil, exposure, to be 
made after an examination of existing blanks. 

"3. The soil cover (grass, brush, spruce litter) should be broken up by irregular seed 
spots so as to form flat areas in the holes or lilanks where the seeding should take place. 
If regeneration fails, plant in the center (of openings) with at least five trees spaced 12 
inches." 

In other words, Thiollier recognized the necessity of assisting natural 
regeneration, and that the ground must not be allowed to run wild. 
Since &• or beech is almost invariably mixed with spruce care must al- 



SELECTION FELLINGS FOR SCOTCH AND ALEPPO PINE 87 

ways be taken to favor the spruce if this species is especially desired. But 
judging from results studied in France the practice of sacrificing a fair 
species hke fir for spruce (which brings a little better price) is yoor 
technique, and there is danger of windfall. 

The spruce and fir regeneration in the forest of St. Martin d'Arc is 
favored by cleaning out the birch, aspen, and other less desirable species. 
In the case of pine a complete cleaning is made wherever groups require 
more light; with fir the cleaning is gi'adual and partial. In this particular 
forest the cutting period is 15 years with a separate rotation for each 
species, whereas in other parts of the Savoie the working plans officer 
usually establishes one rotation to cover all species. In the improvement 
cuttings undesirable trees are often left because if all undesirable ones 
were cut it would mean a too heavy felling. In the neighborhood of 
Thonon (Savoie), above the Drance River, the selection fellings take 
place every 12 to 14 years, according to the working plan, but, in practice, 
they cannot take place quite so often because the amount to be removed 
is limited and accidental fellings consume too much of the yield. On this 
rich soil the spruce comes in best in the openings. The protection zone 
covers a 30 per cent rocky slope where only windfall is removed. In the 
forest of Bonnevaux a selection cutting removed one tree from the center 
of a group of three — a diseased tree, one that was suppressed, and a 
stag-headed tree — as well as two trees which were suppressing fir repro- 
duction. An opening 66 by 98 feet was made at one place because of the 
removal of a large tree with a bad crown. The cut probably removed 25 
per cent of the stand, the amount removed being necessitated by the 
poor condition of the trees. In the forest of Grande Chartreuse, cut over 
by selection fellings, weeds have come in in the openings which were made 
to favor the reproduction of spruce, since fir here reproduces under cover 
before the spruce can gain a foothold. In the forest of Chapelle d'Huin 
beech and a little oak are mixed with the fir. Beech is cut rather heavily, 
especially in cleanings, because firewood values have decreased to such an 
extent. There is too much beech coming in under the old stand of fir but, 
curiously enough, under the beech there is a good deal of fir. In this 
locality, for the value of cordwood removed, the peasants will cut the 
beech; thus the cleaning is made free of charge. 

Selection Fellings for Scotch and Aleppo Pine. — Ordinary selection 
felling is not suitable for Scotch pine; gi'oup selection, when applied to 
a light-demanding species, must produce two results — it must diminish 
the number of stems in the stand so as to open it up sufficiently and it 
must make openings large enough so that the seedlings will receive the 
necessary light, at least during the middle of the day. The size of these 
openings or holes depends on the height of the tree and distance from 
the seed trees. It is usually necessary to concentrate these fellings on, 



88 NATURAL REGENERATION 

say, one-fifteenth of the forest. Under the same conditions it is pos- 
sible to make the openings 2 to 4 acres in area. The diameter of the 
opening is usually at least one-half the height of the neighboring trees. As 
soon as the regeneration starts it is necessary to open up around it in 
order to give it sufficient hght for development, alwaj^s bearing in mind, 
however, that too wide openings, which become choked with brush, 
are consequently expensive to clear. This hole-selection method has 
been applied to aleppo pine, but until experiments in Algeria in the 
Oran Conservation are completed by Conservateur Laporte, no final 
decision can be reached as to the best method of treatment. It is very 
significant, however, that near Marseilles the working plan calls for 
the shelterwood system, that is, progressive feelings, but the local in- 
spector preferred the method as described in the following statement 
furnished the author personally : 

"The aleppo pine is the only coniferous species of the calcareous regions of the Medi- 
terranean Provence. Besides this species there is only the holm oak and the pedunculate 
oak treated under coppice and furnishing nothing but firewood. In the Department of 
Bouches-du-Rhone the aleppo pine ordinarily forms almost pure stands or mixed with a 
small per cent of oak (.0 to 15 per cent). 

"The forests of aleppo pine occupy the lower mountains where the altitude ranges 
from sea level to 2,600 feet. The calcareous soil is generally on steep slopes, which are 
usually rugged. There are numerous rock benches and stone slides with but little 
vegetation. The climate is characterized by hot and dry summers. The average 
annual rainfall is 20 inches at Marseilles to 28 inches at Areasque (in the center of the 
small mountainous forest situated to the northeast of Marseilles). The average number 
of rainy days is 85, chiefly in autumn and spring. During 1912 there was an almost 
complete drought for two months — July and August. 

"The aleppo pine is admirably adapted to these conditions, which any other indige- 
nous species would not be able to stand. It is essentially hght-demanding, endures 
drought, and is vigorous. It has a very light foliage and is easily regenerated by natural 
means. But while it stands heat and prolonged droughts, its growth suffers neverthe- 
less, and its remarkable thrift when near water . . . shows it can thrive on fresh 
soil. The young seedlings suffer from drought if the roots are not well into the soil; 
they are often burned by the sun in the summer if it is especially hot and dry. On cer- 
tain rocky slopes where the stand is open it is difficult to get regeneration under the old 
trees; on the other hand, the soil should not be allowed to run wild, since it must be pro- 
tected against the heat of the sun; cuttings must be light. 

"The treatment by regular high forest (shelterwood) with a rotation of 60 years and 
with the division of the forest in three periodic blocks (each to be regenerated in turn 
within 20 years) has been followed in a number of forests for 50 years. But the looked- 
for regularity has not been obtained on the arid and rocky soil which one finds on most 
of the area under management. 

"Uniform stands have been obtained only on several areas where the soil was deeper 
and richer; these are the exception rather than the rule. In reality most areas treated 
by the shelterwood system have always remained in a transition stage. On the contrary 
the selection system is adapted to the regional conditions. Forests of more than 741 
acres are divided into working groups whose area ordinarily does not exceed this. Each 
working group is divided into a certain number of felling areas, usually 10 to 16, which 



GROUP SELECTION FOR LARCH (AND OTHER METHODS) 89 

are cut over each year successively (the area of each felling area usually varies from 12 
to 49 acres). The number of the felling areas also fixes the periodicity of cutting over 
the same point, 10 to 16 years . . . and at each cut the trees which have attained 
exploitable size (12 to 14 inches in diameter) along with the badly shaped and over- 
mature trees are removed; at the same time the trees, where they are too thick, are 
thinned, thereby freeing the promising seedlings. The yield is not fixed; the cut re- 
moves each time 15 to 20 per cent of the standing material. Seedlings ordinarily come 
in quickly where the stand has been opened; and if the neighboring trees shut off a 
portion of the sun's rays when it is low on the horizon the effect is not bad for the seed- 
lings, but on the contrary preserves them against the dangers of excessive heat and 
drought, due to the intensity of the light and the lightness of the cover. 

"The selection method gives in the end excellent results from the cultural viewpoint 
and is perfectly suited to the silvics of the aleppo pine, both as to the soil and climatic 
conditions. It assures the conservation of the stand, something that is essential in a 
region where the percentage of wooded areas is much too small (14.2). It yields short- 
stemmed trees, to be sure, but 36 feet of height growth is sufficient for very mediocre 
soil. Moreover, the length of the stem is of secondary importance, because at the saw- 
mill the aleppo pine is cut into small boards for shipping crates. From the economic 
viewpoint there is the objection of giving a very great latitude to the officer who does the 
marking, since there is no fixed yield, but it must be remembered that because of frequent 
fires ... it does not seem feasible to establish a precise working scheme which 
would have to be incessantly revised and whose provisions would be constantly re- 
versed." 

Group Selection for Fir or Spruce. — In high altitudes, or perhaps on 
rocky soil, the advance growth is rare and it may be impossible to wait 
for it to install itself. There are usually groups of advance gi'owth, 
however, and these may be gradually uncovered by removing the stand 
sm-rounding them. As these groups develop other trees are removed 
so that they become larger and larger until the ground is completely 
stocked. This method has given very good results and often is the only 
one that can be employed. If there are no gi'oups of advance gi'owth 
an old tree may be cut here and there in order to start seedUng gi-owth. 
If the openings are too large there is danger of weeds taking possession 
of the soil [174]. Spruce reproduces better with gi'oup selection than 
with selection by single trees. 

Group Selection for Larch (and Other Methods). — Near Briangon 
there are numerous interesting examples of the treatment of larch forests. 
(See Fig. 8.) In the communal forest of Villard St. Panerace the larch 
comprises an open park-like forest where cattle grazing is allowed. 
The cutting made is really an improvement felhng, but the young 
growth is always freed even if a good tree has to be cut. On the other 
hand a good many poor trees are left rather than make large openings. 
According to the working plan it is a seed felling, but on the ground 
it was a selection felling by groups. According to the working plan 
no sacrifices are to be made to regularize the stand and yet the inspector 
is not advised systematically to make a regular stand irregular. In 



90 



NATURAL REGENERATION 



another portion of the forest the marking illustrates the freedom and 
flexibility of French silviculture. Here the cutting was the removal 
of small groups of trees and the groups left were occasionally thinned. 
Trees were left along roads and around a small mountain swamp. The 
openings were rarely more than 33 to 49 feet in diameter and the groups 




Fig. 8. — Pure larch at an altitude of 5,970 feet, in the communal forest of Tignes. 
The stand totals 49 trees per acre and 45 cubic meters (11,000 feet board measure). 
A selection felling has resulted in an open stand, because the ground (grass covered) 
was not worked to assist regeneration. 

left were preferably on rocky ground and very steep slopes. The cutting 
in one locality where conservatism was indicated by the steep slopes 
removed, in a light selection system, about 20 per cent of the stand. 
An experiment was being tried out by cutting in strips running hori- 
zontally around the slopes. The strips cut were about 100 feet in width 



TREATMENT OF SCENIC FORESTS 91 

and the uncut strip, which was thinned, was about 65 feet wide. In 
the same locahty in the forest of Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre the selection 
system was used because it did not interrupt the local grazing. The 
local inspector stated that if there had been no provisions in the working 
plan (by Broilliard, December 31, 1855), he would have used the shelter- 
wood method on the lower gentle slopes and a conservative selection 
system higher up where the slopes were steep. Accorchng to page 13 
of the original working plan the secondary fellings are not necessary. 
"The regeneration felHngs fall into a seed felling and a final felling." 

The trees reserved after the seed felling should be at least twenty 
per acre. Grazing should be forbidden in each division when it comes 
to be regenerated, and the extraction of underbrush should be made 
at the time of seed felling. When the natural reseeding is less than 
half completed, say 7 years after the seed felling, the gi-ound still un- 
stocked should be cultivated in horizontal strips 20 inches wide, spaced 
3.3 feet. Moreover, any openings still remaining at the final felhng 
should be planted. The final cutting will take place when the reseeding 
is completed, and the seed fellings shall not be started again until after 
the ground is fully stocked. The rotation is 200 years. 

Treatment of Scenic Forests. — Forests retained as semi-parks for 
recreation are always high forests and are usually free from working- 
plan regulation so far as the specific amount to be cut is concerned. A 
selection system is usually applied but in reality it is a light improvement 
cutting, removing only the dead and dying trees. The young stands 
are often thinned. For example, in the working plan for the forest 
of St. Antoine in the Vosges (for the years 1908-1939), special provi- 
sion is made for the scenic working group designed to protect a gorge 
with waterfalls and precipitous slopes. In the selection system used 
the fine, big trees are favored and are retained as long as possible for 
their natural beauty. According to the working plan: 

"The aim of this scenic working group is to form and to keep a stand of beautiful 
trees without striving for regularity and without a necessity for economic exploitation. 
Each year after having marked the windfall and dead trees and having subtracted their 
volume, the remainder of the yield should be cut from the entire compartment . . . 
by selection ... see to it not only that the stand is not opened up, but also that 
it is maintained sufficiently dense. In the young stands remove only the trees wholly 
dominated and the stems too dense which will certainly become valueless. In the high 
forest . . . remove only the overmature or wholly defective trees . . . the 
greatest prudence will always be the maxim. The selection fellings will be extended 
over a large area in order to cover the working group one and one-half times during the 
cutting period." 

In all forests under working plans famous trees are always reserved 
from cutting. 



92 NATURAL REGENERATION 



COPPICE SYSTEMS 



General. — Economically and silviculturally the application of any 
coppice system over large areas is a grave error. Tassey estimated the 
loss in France, due to the large areas in coppice, at more than 60 million 
dollars per year. In fact all the best French authorities condemn cop- 
pice and especially short rotations, yet to-day we find four-fifths of the 
private forests in some form of coppice. Even in the State forests more 
than one-third of the producing forest area is in coppice (largely cop- 
pice-under-standards). Furthermore, nine-tenths of all coppice in 
France is managed on too short a rotation. 

In the past this type of stand was very profitable because of the 
high prices of tannin bark and firewood. But to-day, on account of the 
large decrease in these values, coppice is becoming less and less profit- 
able, and so far as economic and silvicultural conditions permit, these 
stands are being transformed to high forest. One of the main objections 
to conversions is that it is necessary to increase the growing stock, and 
communes dependent on local wood supplies cannot afford this economy. 
In some localities where tannin bark is the chief product, coppice rota- 
tions have been as short as 12 or 15 years. In other locahties the coppice 
of sessile oak has been continued, but with a longer rotation so as to 
produce mine props and stulls. With this longer rotation (which often 
amounts to 30 or 40 years) it is necessary to thin coppice in order to 
give the best chance for development to those trees which will produce 
mine props 16 to 33 feet in length. The management of simple coppice 
is popular with private owners because it has frequently given a certain 
fixed income, it requires little or no skill, less money is tied up in grow- 
ing stock, and because there is little danger from insects or fungus. 
Except in very wet locahties, however, it results in positive damage to 
the soil. According to Boppe: "There is grave danger from frost, 
especially to species hke beech, and to have successful coppice stands 
for generations a mild climate is essential." 

Furthermore it is necessary to study the sprouting longevity of the 
species in the coppice.^'' For example, the sessile and pedunculate oaks 
in France sprout well up to 40 or 50 years of age, while other oak species, 
such as holm, do not sprout vigorously after 25 or 30 years. But as a 
matter of fact most private coppice in France should be cut on double 
its present rotation. Some species (oak, hornbeam, ash, maple, alder) 
reproduce vigorously from the stump, others (beech and birch) sprout 
poorly but make up for this deficiency by prohfic seeding; the aspen 

i°See "Le Traitement des Bois en France, "Broilliard, Nouvelle Edition, especially 
pp. 62-236. Since the coppice systems will not be widely used in the United States the 
French application to the various species has not been given in detail. 



SIMPLE COPPICE 93 

does not sprout from the stump at all but produces root suckers in 
abundance. These qualities must always be considered. The chief 
species found in French coppice stands are locust, poplar, maple, oak, 
beech, ash, elm, alder, birch, and hornbeam. In a great many localities it 
is becoming very popular to introduce conifers into the coppice stand 
with the idea of converting them gradually into high forest and in order 
to have the conifers increase the production of timber. Maritime pine 
and aleppo pine are also being introduced in coppice stands in the south 
of France. 

The following official figures give an idea of the relative yield of 
timber and fuel from simple coppice, coppice-under-standards, and high 
forest : 




Simple coppice 0.015 0.985 

Coppice-under-standards 0. 175 0.825 

High forest 0.465 0.535 



Simple Coppice. — The important technique is to cut at the right 
season and to cut smooth, sloping stumps close to the ground. In 
France the season to cut oak is from March to May; for hornbeam, 
March to April; for birch, November to December. August is the 
most unfavorable month in which to cut coppice, and on fire lines it is 
often of value to cut ift August so as to weaken and decrease the sprout- 
ing. It is of interest that there are two variations to the rule of cutting 
low stumps: (a) In holm-oak stands where the ground is dry and the 
climate hot, the stump may be cut 2 inches below the ground to increase 
sprouting; (6) on wet ground, where there is often standing water (as 
in the Sologne) the stump may be cut 5 to 8 inches above the ground. 
This method would be followed with willow along the river beds. To 
maintain coppice in good condition the better species, such as oak, must 
be occasionally planted or sown in the blanks; these seedhngs must be 
usually protected from suppression by the more rapidly growing sprouts. 
When the coppice rotation is 25 years or more one thinning, about 8 
years before the end of the rotation, is necessary for the following reasons: 
The growth of the coppice will be increased ; the first-year standards will 
endure isolation better; valuable species, and especially seedlings, can be 
assisted by cutting weed species which are competing with them ; coppice 
suppressing the lower branches of valuable reserves, which would start 
rot, can be cut out ; and short lived species can be removed before they die. 



94 NATURAL REGENERATION 

Coppice with Field Crops. — " Sartage," the combination of coppice 
with field crops, has been largely condemned in France as poor silvi- 
cultm-e, but Jolyet believes in it "since the potash resulting from burn- 
ing the branches enriches the soil sufficiently to permit with some 
success the cultivation of grain." On the other hand Boppe [222] calls 
attention to the damage from fire, the decrease in the amount of oak, 
the washing away of soil foods on the slopes, and the difficulty of in- 
creasing the rotations. 

Selection Coppice (Beech). — While considerable difficulty has been 
experienced in treating beech under the simple coppice system, it can 
be worked in selection coppice (taillis furete), since the selection cuttings 
enable the retention of part of the stand which protects the shoots 
against the first autumn frosts. It is usually worked on a diameter- 
limit basis and furnishes a great deal of charcoal for manufacturing 
purposes. Huffel, who likes this method, says [147] that ''the treat- 
ment in selection coppice is really a methodical treatment and perfectly 
rational, justified by the silvics of the beech and the exceptional condi- 
tions of the coppice. . . . When employed correctly it gives good 
results." 

Correctly apphed, the selection coppice does protect the young beech 
from frost, but since the best sprouts are being cut continually the 
stand 7nust in time deteriorate. In practice, with a 30-year rotation, 
one-third of the stand in each compartment would be cut every 10 years. 
Naturally it is difficult to cut the larger sprouts from a clump without 
damaging some of those that remain. 

Coppice-Under-Standards. — Coppice-under-standards is composed of 
two distinct elements: the lower story, the coppice, which is cut clean 
on a short rotation, and the upper story, or reserve,^^ which is usually 
managed on a rotation four to five times the length of the coppice. 
The object of this kind of management is to increase the proportion of 
timber. It is now generally admitted as being inferior to high forest 
without the advantages of coppice. The species composing the coppice in 
coppice-under-standards evidently should have splendid sprouting ability 
and should also be species that will endure some side shade. The hornbeam, 
the maple, and the linden are the chief species; beech and oak are less valu- 
able. The pyrenean oak is used as coppice a good deal in the west of 
France, birch is useful on sandy soils, and poplar on wet soils. The chief 
skill in managing a coppice-under-standards forest is the choice of the 
upper story, which should be chosen from species of a light foliage so as 
not to suppress the under story, and should be selected so far as possible 
from seedlings or root suckers as a second choice. The pedunculate and 
sessile oak are of the first importance as standards, although ash, elm, 
" See Jolyet, pp. 225, 250, 382, 431-439 for data on coppice-under-standards. 



COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS 



95 



and maple are good associates. Even with light fohaged oak three to 
six per cent of the coppice is lost through shading. The alder and linden 
are not so good on account of their thicker foliage, and beech can be 
used only in exceptional circumstances. The foliage of the hornbeam 
is too thin. Most stands of coppice-under-standards have been 
ruined through careless selection of the trees to be reserved. These 
reserved trees should be carefully distributed over the area so that the 
crowns can be isolated. According to Inspecteur Galmiche [233] the 
following space should be allowed for oak standards of the following 
ages: 50 years, 22 square yards; 100 years, 89 square yards; 150 years, 
145 square yards. According to Jolyet two-thirds to one-third the grow- 
ing space should be reserved for the coppice and a normal number of 
reservesi2 are per acre: IR = 20, 2R = 12, 3R = 8, 4R = 4. Broil- 
liard prefers not to specify any exact number of reserves as an ideal, 
but advises the forester to mark as many as possible if good trees can 
be found. He cautions against stopping the reservation of standards 
simply because 20 to 25 or more have been secured. If good trees can 
be secured it is better to go ahead and mark them. In a coppice-under- 
standards forest near Oloron in the Pyrenees the foresters are guard- 
ing against keeping too many standards. They argue that, with too 
much of a reserve, the coppice does not grow well in youth and the 
reserves do not develop so thriftily. As explained by the local inspector 
the Nancy Forest School teaches the value of retaining many standards 
for the simple reason that they yield a larger percentage of timber, but 
rather than adopt this practice the local inspector favored conversion 
to a high forest. The normal number per acre in this section is four 3R, 
twelve 2R, and twenty-four IR standards. It is claimed that with 
many reserves they cannot grow such good trees and the oak is pre- 
vented from coming in as thriftily as it otherwise might. Major Hirsch, 
the owner of the famous forest of Amboise, reserves all the standards he 
can secure and in view of eventual conversions this seems the best policy 
for those who can afford it. Badre beheves in greatly increasing the number 
of standards to secure quick conversions, especially in Normandy where up 

12 The French name their reserves as follows : 



French name 


Age, 

30-year coppice 

rotation 


Key letter used 
by author 


Baliveau 


30-60 

60-90 

90-120 

120-150 

150-180 

180-210 


IR standard 


Moderne 

Ancienne, 2d class 

Ancienne, 1st class 

Vieille Ecorce, 2d class 


2R standard 
3R standard 
4R standard 
5R standard 


Vieille Ecorce, 1st class 


6R standard 







96 NATURAL REGENERATION 

to 600 per acre are sometimes reserved. Thiollier ^^ gives four rules for the 
improvement of coppice-under-standards: (1) Lengthen coppice ro- 
tations; (2) increase the density of the reserves and thin when coppice 
is 20 years of age; (3) concentrate the oak on the soil best suited to it; 
(4) choose standards best suited to the soil. Gazin," one of the best 
foresters in France, in private employ, has called attention to the bad 
effect of higher labor costs on coppice exploitations and the necessity for 
reserving more standards and planting. He advocates using 100-foot 
strips through the cutting area, cutting clean the coppice on half the 
strips and the ripe standards on all strips so as to (1) get mine props from 
the coppice held over; (2) crowd out the weed trees; (3) enrich the stand; 
(4) improve the soil by having uncut strips. Such procedure is mani- 
festly a compromise so as not to reduce the revenue too much during the 
process of increasing the growing stock. 

The following rules for the choice of standards have been developed 
in France:''^ (1) All reserved trees (standards) must be of sufficient 
distance apart so that the branches of their crowns cannot join before 
the end of the rotation which is beginning. If they do join sufficient 
hght will not be admitted to allow the coppice understory to develop. 
(2) It is not absolutely essential to have the reserves evenly distributed 
over the cutting area because to do this means to sacrifice the choice of 
species. For instance, it is better to have some grouping of the reserves 
if by so doing some good oak standards can be secured. (3) It is ad- 
vantageous to reserve a great number of standards near the forest 
boundaries to serve as a wind protection and to prevent the soil in the 
interior of the cutting areas from drying out too much. (4) It is also 
advantageous to have the reserves, so far as possible, situated near the 
logging roads and compartment lines, since it makes cutting cheaper 
and the product more valuable, at the same time giving the forest the 
appearance of richness. (5) A good, sound oak should always be favored 
as against other species for the reserve. (G) If two trees are oak of 
equal vigor the largest should be reserved if it will last until the next 
rotation. (7) If neither of the two trees is oak, reserve the next best 
species and the straightest, thriftiest tree. (8) The selection of first- 
year standards should be made personally by an experienced forester. 
Broilliard adheres to the rule: "It is always the vigor of a tree that 
should determine its retention, and those are the big trees which enrich 
the coppice." A good coppice-under-standards is impossible with a 
short rotation for the coppice, because the length of clear bole of the 
standards is determined by the height of the coppice. With a rotation 

'3 Taillis et Futaic Melanges, par E. Liouville (Thiollier cited). Besangon, 1911. 
'^ Coupes dc Taillis sous Futaie par Bandes Alternes. Brochure, pp. 73-85. 
i!> Jolyct, pp. 235-239. 



COPPICE-UNDER-STAND.\E,DS 



97 



of 15 to 20 years the coppice is necessarily short-boled. Broilliard there- 
fore concludes that the rotation for a coppice-under-standards should 
be 30 to 40 years or more unless the soil is very rich, but unless repeat- 
edly freed the oak shows a tendency to disappear. 

It is becoming more and more popular, with the decrease in fuel 
values, to plant conifers in coppice-under-standards, especially on 
rather thin soils and where there are considerable blanks. According 
to Jolyet, such species, to make their introduction a success, should 
have the following qualities: (1) Rapid growth, especially during the 
initial years when there is competition with the rapidly growing coppice; 
(2) intolerance (or at least not tolerant); (3) light-foliaged crown; (4) 
hardiness (especially against late frosts); (5) must be windfirm. Not- 
withstanding these rules the species most frequently introduced are: 
(Locusts) Austrian pine, (birch) Scotch pine, white pine, alder, larch, 
and spruce. The spruce is clearly neither light-foliaged nor wind- 
firm. 

In the third conservation the financial yield of the coppice-under- 
standards has been classified,^^ according to the soil, into six groups: 

TABLE 8. — COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS 



I. 
II. 

Ill, 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 



— "Calmatages". . 

— Sandy clay 

— "Maris" 

— Clay 

— Calcareous marl 

— Rocky 



State forests 



Rotation, 
years 



20-25 
40 

32-38 
32-36 



32 



Annual 
average 

net 

yield, 

per 

acre 



$4.63 
3.01 
2.54 
3.09 



0.85 



Communal forests 



Rotation, 
years 



20-26 
20-27 
20-29 
20-30 
24-36 



Annual 

average 

net 

yield, 

per 

acre 



$2.54 up 
3.01 
1.62 
0.93 
0.46 



Coppice 



Annual 
average 
net yield 
on 25-year 
rotation, 
per acre 



52.54 
2.16 

1.38 

0.93 
0.70 
0.39 



The coppice-under-standards system is typical of France but is 
merely a weak compromise between the high forest (the forest of the 
future) and the coppice (the forest of the charcoal and cordwood age 
wliich is past). French wi-iters, hke Broilhard, show clearly that it 
pays to hold good trees over as reserves, by citing the value of a IR 
standard as 20 cents, a 2R standard as $2, a 3R standard as $8, and 
a 4R to 5R standard as $20, without taking into consideration the 
damage the standards do the coppice, for, as a rule, the better the stand- 



1^ Traitement et Amenagement d'un Taillis sous Futaie, M. A. Mathey, 1909. S. F. 



111. 



98 NATURAL REGENERATION 

ards the poorer the coppice, except on the richest of soils. But from 
the American viewpoint the question must always arise: ''If standards 
pay well, why not have high forest and be done with it?" In the ma- 
jority of cases the owner of the coppice-under-standards probably pre- 
fers this system, since he has not so much capital tied up as he would 
have in the high forest, and because he not only gets his returns oftener 
but gets besides some saw timber. 

A Substitute for Coppice-Under-Standards (Futaie Claire). — Accord- 
ing to Huff el (pp. 327-333, Vol. II), a new method of treatment must 
be adopted for the oak-beech stands in the northeast of France: 

"In a large part of France, and precisely that part where there are most public for-- 
ests, the natural regeneration of broadleaf trees, where oak is the chief species, is at- 
tended by great difficulties. The seed crops are often very rare, separated by intervals 
of almost 25 years. (There were no complete crops in Lorraine from 1861 to 18S8.) 
Furthermore, in this region, the oak grows on fresh (compact) clay . . . where 
weeds grow rapidly and prevent natural regeneration. These difficulties, and others 
. . . decided our predecessors to abandon the treatment of forests under regular high 
forest (futaie pleine) in the northeast of France. . . . They had pictured instead 
. . . a coppice-under-standards. . . . But when fuel wood commenced to be 
menaced by coal . . . they looked for a substitute for the coppice-under-standards 
which would produce a minimum of fuel and a maximum of saw timber. Two solutions 
were adopted. In the State forests they generally undertook the conversion of the 
coppice-under-standards to regular high forest. ... It ended, in many forests, by 
their abandoning the conversions. . . . The attempts at conversion put a great 
many of our best stands in a state of disorder. . . . Then they thought best 
to substitute for the coppice-under-standards what they called ' high forest over 
coppice,' that is to say, by multiplying as many times as possible the number of 
standards in the compound coppice. . . . The coppice-under-standards became 
gradually, under the influence of exaggerated reserves, a sort of irregular high forest 
over a decrepit coppice, formed mostly of weed trees in which the oak had entirely dis- 
appeared. . . . Where the young standards were oak . . . the harm was not 
irreparable. A systematic felling of three-fourths the 2R standards . . . would 
reform the coppice. . . . But where these IR standards or superabundant 2R 
standards were beech the situation was very grave. . . . They will be forced after 
one or two rotations to complete the conversion to high forest. . . . The high forest 
over coppice, where you mark 200-300 standards from the coppice (aged 25 to 30 years) 
is nonsense and ends sooner or later in an 'impasse' from which it is difficult to get out. 

"It seems possible to form a type of forest, more easily secured in the northeast of 
France than the regular high forest, and more productive in saw timber than the cop- 
pice-under-standards. It is with this aim in view that we now sketch a kind of ex- 
ploitation which we call by the old term ' open high forest ' (futaie claire) that our pre- 
decessors frequently used for discribing the isolated oaks which they grew above their 
coppice." 

Huffel accordingly proposes in effect a selection high forest with 
oak as the principal species with fellings on a 15-year cutting cycle 
regulated by area. With a 120-year rotation there would be trees in 
the first compartment 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 years old; 



SUBSTITUTE FOR COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS (FUTAIE CLAIRE) 99 

and in the fifteenth compartment 1, 16, to 106 years, or in correspond- 
ing size classes. 

"These trees are so mixed up, that at every point there would be seed trees. . . . 
We would thus succeed in profiting by all partial seed crops. . . . Moreover these 
(seed) trees are isolated, that is to say, they would not form a continuous complete 
stand with one story. Between the largest (oldest) trees there would be openings, 
whose size would be determined by the tolerance of the species, and by the need of light 
for the seedlings. . . . Each age class must occupy equal areas in the forest. . . . 
If we had ten, then each would cover one-tenth of an hectare (2.5 acres). In the oak 
forests, for which we suggest this kind of a feUing, it would be advisable, as a precaution, 
to leave a portion of the area unoccupied . . . so as to favor the germination and 
maintenance of seedlings which might come in, mixed with . . . weeds and sprouts. 
When the time for cutting arrives the less vigorous and less desirable trees in all size 
classes will be felled in excess of the normal number assigned to the size class. At the 
same time the young seedlings, poorly formed or lacking in vigor, would be cut back and 
the others freed." . . . 

This type of forest, Huffel claims, would have the following advantages 
over the coppice-under-standards : 

(1) Almost all seed would be used no matter where or when it is 
produced. 

(2) The systematic and frequent cutting over the same area would 
insure the maintenance of the seedhngs by disengagement cuttings. 

(3) This frequent cutting would also make it possible to leave only 
small intervals between the large trees and the saw timber would 
therefore be increased over that obtained in coppice-under-standards. 

(4) The large trees would have longer boles. 

(5) The frequency of felling would allow the removal of defective 
trees and weed species. 

(6) The felling would be lighter and hence better for the stand. 

(7) The improvement felHng so necessary in coppice-under-standards, 
though often omitted, would not be so vital because of the frequent 
regular felUngs. 

(8) "The operation of marking the fellings (without being more 
difficult to make them correctly in the coppice-under-standards) will be 
in every case clearly and precisely regulated. They could not depend 
on the arbitrariness of some man who changes the method of treatment 
of the forest by unreasonable multiplication of IR standards of second- 
ary species, or of being ruined by the excessive felHng of large trees." 

As empirical figures, subject to variation, Huffel gives the "normal" 
number of trees for each diameter class. These data would be used as a 
guide and for the purpose of comparison with the actual stand when 
the fellings are made: 



100 



NATURAL REGENERATION 



D. B. H., 


Average number 


D. B. H.. 


Average number 


inches 


of trees 


inches 


of trees 


8 


28 


20 


6.1 


10 


17.6 


22 


5.1 


12 


12.8 


24 


4.8 


14 


10 


26 


4.4 


16 


8 


28 


4 


18 


7 







It is too early to give the results of this suggested departure from 
standard methods. The greatest danger appears to be from tolerant 
species which may usurp more than their share of the soil. Oak demands 
full sunlight for its regeneration. Will this be secured? Then, too, how- 
would Huff el's "futaie claire" differ from a group selection system with a 
cutting cycle of 15 years? 

Conversions. — If we accept the arguments against the coppice and the 
coppice-under-standards systems these forests must be converted into high 
forest, and to-day there are 241,189 acres, one-fifth of the State forest area, 
in France being transformed into high forest.^^ This is easy in theory 
but difficult to execute satisfactorily except on rich soils with good 
conditions for natural seeding. The procedure ^^ for conversions varies 
with the quahty of the stand: 

(A) With rich coppice-under-standards: (1) Increase the rotation of 
the coppice to reduce sprouting; (2) increase the number of standards; 

(3) every 10 to 12 years thin out the coppice and favor the standards; 

(4) at the end of the new rotation make seed fellings, secondary fellings, 
and a final felling as required by the silvicultural conditions; (5) fill 
in blanks with rapidly growing light crowned species. 

(B) With a rundown coppice on poor soil rather than wait for the 
lengthening of the rotation or the gi-adual reservation of standards, it 
may be best to: (1) Make a heavy improvement cutting; (2) plant the 
blanks, and (3) protect the plantations by frequent cleanings and thin- 
nings. 

Between the extremes of (A) and (B) there may be many combina- 
tions and variations. In case (A) the coppice rotation may be increased 
70 to 80 years, since aging the coppice increases the soil fertility and 
assists the future regeneration. The thinnings can realize the dying 
trees in the coppice, reduce the number of sprouts to each stump, while 
the cover will hinder sprouting. If the seed fellings are light, beech and 

" According to Huffel (p. 328, Vol. II, footnote 2) : "From 1876-1892, 348,000 acres 
of State forest formerly under conversion were made into coppice-under-standards. 
The acres of coppice under conversion were 699,000 in 1868, 717,000 in 1876, and 
368,000 in 1892." In 1912 the area was further reduced to 241,189 acres. 

18 Jolyet, pp. 149, 252, 260. 



CONVERSIONS 101 

other tolerant species will be favored against the more desirable oak. 
After the final felling great care should be taken to free the oak. Con- 
versions should begin only where the conditions are favorable and not 
all over the forest. 

Cuif/^ in charge of research at Nancy, favors conversions by gi-oup 
selection rather than by the shelterwood for the following reasons: (1) 
It is applicable to large and small forests alike; (2) forest capital is more 
evenly distributed; (3) the method approaches nature; (4) it profits by 
seed trees here and there; (5) mixtures are encouraged; (6) each species 
can be cut when ripe with coppice-under-standards. He favors the 
best stems and seedUngs, cutting sprouts level with the ground to pro- 
vide them with good root systems; he plants in the openings and cuts the 
coppice back to favor the best trees. 

Probably the best-known conversion -o in France is that for the State 
forest of Amance undertaken by the Nancy Forest School. It was 
started by Lorenz in 1826 and the working plan was revised in 1856, 1877, 
1888, 1901, and 1908. It offers the best chance in France for a detailed 
study of conversion methods as applied to hardwoods. In the original 
working plan Cuif says: 

"The conversion of a coppice-under-standards to open high forest (futaie claire) 
does not seem to present very serious difficulties. It is even hkely that it would auto- 
matically follow the application to a coppice-under-standards of a rotation equal to the 
period of an open high forest. It would suffice then, in order to accomplish this, to add 
to the reserve every 15 years the oak and ash seedlings which would be found mixed with 
the young coppice shoots and to eliminate systematically from the high forest the beech, 
elm, and Hght woods which it actually includes. This method of procedure would 
surely lead to the final aim. But the conversion would be long, and it would require 
sacrifice even greater than the coppice, destined to disappear only gradually and only 
because of natural forces would furnish products without commercial value. In order 
to alleviate this inconvenience we propose to adopt the following rules in marking the 
conversion fellings which follow one another at 15-year intervals: 

"1. Preserve all the reserves of the oak and ash species except those which are 
defective or too weak to warrant the hope of seed. 

"2. Complete lopping of coppice around these reserves, this lopping being extended 
far enough so that the circumference of the crowns may be freed completely and bathed 
in sunlight. 

"3. Levying of a moderate yield among the trees 10 inches and above in diameter 
among the other species, the large beech with many by preference being eliminated. 

"4. In those localities where the cover of oak and ash reserves is lacking, form with 
these trees (also small beech, elm, and hnden, or with coppice poles) an open stand ca- 
pable of serving as a nurse stand for the oak and ash. These plantations should be made 
in the same year as the felHng; they should aim to introduce these two species in the 
parts where they are totally lacking. 

^^ Personal notes supplied the author in 1913. 

20 Amenagement de la Foret domaniale d' Amance (Meurthe et Moselle), 1908. Par 
Cuif. 



102 NATURAL REGENERATION 

"5. Reserve all oak or ash wherever found, but take pains to free all seedlings and 
saplings. 

"These general principles being stated, the management of a conversion in open 
high forest requires: (1) Forest descriptions by divisions on the ground destined to form 
separate units; (2) the results of the stock-taking made in each of these divisions; (3) 
the regulation of felling during the first period of 15 years with an indication of the yield 
and the approximate amount of annual planting; (4) a critical analysis of the products to 
be realized before and after the conversion." 

In the Jored of Moiitanjifi conversion, according to the working plan, 
the following cultm-al rules are given: 

" E.xcept on several areas which are quite open, natural regeneration of the old poles 
can readily be obtained, but we do not pretend that the regeneration mixed in the old 
pole stands will thrive. The sprouts are usually not to be feared as a general rule be- 
cause of their overmaturity and because of decaying stumps, but, on the other hand, 
there will be an insufficiency of seed coupled with a rapid deterioration of the soil and 
encroachment by the heather. Moreover, it is felt that it will often be advisable not to 
wait too long for a complete natural reproduction but, that it will be better to secure a 
second crop by artificial restocking. We are convinced that for these stands only resin- 
ous species are suitable." 

In tliis forest the coppice is held over to a rotation of 70 to 80 years 
in order to secure complete cover, good seed bearers, soil protection, 
and to protect the young seedlings fi-om the frost as well as to weaken 
the sprouts. It will also be necessary to free the seedlings during the 
first 20 years. In order to encourage seedlings to come in the ground 
is worked, but only where there is a probabiHty of an acorn crop. Soil 
wounding here costs from $1.15 to $1.50 per acre. The hornbeam and 
beech will be cut first because they form too vigorous stands, but in 
one place where the beech had come in after the seed felling (because 
little light was admitted) it will not be sacrificed; instead it will be 
retained. In another working group, where the coppice had been ruined, 
the ground was planted to Scotch pine which was first thinned after 15 
years and afterwards every 10 years. An interesting plantation of 
Scotch pine had been made on the south side of a compartment along a 
road in order to protect the interior stand against the sun. In some 
worn-out blanks single Scotch pine had been planted in November and 
December, separated by at least two meters from the neighboring 
sprouts. In this conversion the^ chief factors were: lengthening the cop- 
pice rotation, securing all possible seedlings and root suckers for the reserve, 
filling up blanks with conifers, repeated cleanings to favor the reserve so 
that the coppice would be gradually shaded out and the forest trans- 
formed to a high forest. 

In the forest of Huit a coppice-under-standards forest is being con- 
verted into a conifer high forest. Spruce has been planted in rather a 
poor, open coppice-under-standards. At the age of from 10 to 15 years 



CONVERSIONS 103 

quite a proportion of the spruce was suppressed by the sprouts, and in 
the 1912 felhng a great deal of damage was done. It is clear that the 
spruce should have been hberated some time ago. The 1912 cut removed 
all the poor material and kept all the best poles, although some of the 
older standards were cut in the openings; the coppice is still coming up 
strong, but where lots of standards have been reserved, it is fast dis- 
appearing and becoming suppressed. 

The Scotch pine introduced at Baccarat (Basses- Vosges) at an alti- 
tude of from 900 to 1,900 feet, is now 70 to 80 years of age. Most of 
the area was in coppice-under-standards. Nine pounds of Scotch pine 
per acre was sown in cultivated strips 24 inches wide and 5 feet apart 
on the areas ruined. The broadleaves on such poor soil yield each 
year about four cords and 62 cents per acre. The total cost spent on 
conversion amounted to about $12 per acre; this did not include the 
cost of cleanings at two years of age at S2.40 per acre; at 4 to 5, 6 to 8, 
and 8 to 10 years at costs of $1.54, $1.54 and 38 cents, a total cost of 
$5.86 per acre. Thinnings began at 10 to 15 years and paid for them- 
selves up to 15 years; at 26 years they netted 39 cents per cubic meter; 
at 35 years about $1.05 per cubic meter, and at 44 years a net yield of 
$1.44 per cubic meter (about 11 cents, 29 cents, and 40 cents cord net); 
owing to deterioration of the soil it was found necessary to underplant 
with fir and beech at 25 to 30 years at an additional cost of $9.60 per 
acre. This makes a total cost of $27.46 per acre on soil preparation, 
seed, sowing, cleanings, and underplanting. Counting the former broad- 
leaf forest yielding at 62 cents per acre per year, the Scotch pine at the 
end of 59 years has shown an annual yield of $2.01 per acre, or $1.39 
more. Apparently this conversion will prove a sound business venture. 
Even with good technique it takes time to make conversions. In the 
communal forest of Vuillecin (near Pontailler, Doubs), the oak and 
beech comprise 0.6 of the stand and fir and spruce. 

According to the special fellings scheme: 

"In order to obtain a systematic conversion to conifer high forest and in order to 
accelerate the transformations with the aid of artificial restocking and local thinnings 
. . . the compartments have been divided into two groups. In the first group we 
have assigned compartments . . . where the conversion to conifers is the least 
advanced and where, because of the poor condition of the coppice, the large number of 
old beech which still remain, and because of the plantations which have been lost, im- 
provement is needed at once. It will require about 30 years ... to complete the 
restocking which is required. . . . These compartments are to undergo transforma- 
tion cuttings at the start, being something like shelterwood fellings followed by planta- 
tions, then by thinnings whose renewal will depend on cultural requirements. 

"The second group will include the remaining compartments under improvement 
cuttings. 

"A. — Transformation cuttings. The compartments of the second group shall num- 
ber four; two with 5-year and two with 10-year intervals. Thus it will be possible to 



104 NATURAL REGENERATION 

give, without undue delay, all necessary care to the existing plantations, to complete 
them where necessary, and make sure of the transformation of the compartments of the 
first group during the period (30 years). 

"B. — Improvement cuttings. The compartments of the second group shall be 
thinned twice during the period of 30 years, or once every 15 years. 

"1. — Transformation cuttings. The first two cuttings (transformation) shall aim 
to give to the existing plantation what is considered a sufficient number of trees to pro- 
tect the restocked areas, which shall be made after the cutting, provided that is neces- 
sary. 

"The second two cuttings shall remove the overmature material that remains stand- 
ing so that each compartment of the first group shall be completely converted into 
conifer high forest by 1939. 

"From 1910 to 1939 all the restocking shall be done exclusively in the compartments 
of the first group. Spruce should be used, as heretofore, for planting since it has given 
excellent results; on the poorer soils, however, it might be well to try out Austrian pine 
and Scotch pine. 

"2. — Improvement cuttings. These shall be carefully executed and shall consist of: 
(1) Extraction of fir most liable to rot and old oak or beech of poor quality that has 
become useless . . . general development of existing conifer poles; (2) thinnings in 
the poles where they are too thick, and cleanings in the thickets and saplings to assist 
the more valuable species, and to free them . . . removal of crooked stems and dead 
trees; (3) in the pole stands where the broadleaves dominate, the best beech should be 
resowed and, so far as possible, the conifers of all ages." 

The best-known example of a conversion attempted in the United 
States is found under tlie direction of the Yale Forest School. Accord- 
ing to a statement issued by the school: 

"The general plan of management for Maltby Park may be summarized as follows: 
It is handled in conjunction with other forest lands owned by the New Haven Water 
Company, the total area being in the neighborhood of 9,000 acres. The hardwood 
stands will be managed on some modification of the shelterwood method, such as the 
polewood coppice system, on a rotation between 60 and 80 years. Several problems in 
connection with this method remain to be solved, such, for example, as the influence of 
sprouts which start after thinnings, on seedling reproduction which later on it is desired to 
secure. 

"Where conifers have been underplanted the hardwoods will eventually be removed, 
and a coniferous or mixed stand obtained. It is believed that, on account of the rela- 
tively slow growth and low yield per acre of the hardwood species, better financial re- 
sults could be obtained by converting all the hardwood stand to coniferous forest but, 
until approximately 2,000 acres of open land on other parts of the holdings are planted, 
this poUcy will not be adopted." 

Under the condition existing at Maltby Park probably even better 
silvicultural results would have been secured if the hardwoods had been 
cut more heavily and if more money had been spent in freeing the 
plantations suppressed by the coppice sprouts. The value of the land as 
watershed would not have suffered because the area under conversion 
comprised only a small per cent of the drainage area. 



INTERMEDIATE CUTTINGS 105 

CARE OF THE STAND AFTER REGENERATION 

Intermediate Cuttings. — Especially with natural regeneration, clean- 
ings, thinnings, and improvement cuttings are particularly important.-^ 
With natural regeneration there are always weed trees to be cleaned 
out of the stand, and valuable seedhngs and saplings to be protected 
and favored; the over-dense stands must be thinned to prevent undue 
competition; and later on the stand must be continually improved by 
the ehmination of the poorer specimens. According to Bardrillart a 
cleaning "is a cutting designed to clean or 'purge,' as one might say, 
a forest of a part of the wood, briars, brush, weed trees that damage the 
growth, or trees that are dead or dying, or too numerous," It is very 
much hke weeding a garden. As a rule, private owners in France over- 
look the necessity of weeding or cleaning their forests because there is 
a definite expense involved. The French employ the term "to free a 
stand" as synonymous with the term "to clean," with the slight differ- 
ence that they free a valuable species from crowding while they clean 
out a seed tree to avoid injurious competition. According to Jolyet 
"the chief aim of a thinning is always to favor the growth of the best 
trees ... to maintain a stand in the best vegetative condition, 
or a mixture in the desired proportions . . . and to increase the 
yield." It thus appears that thinnings also free and clean the stand, 
but at a later period in its development, and their main objective is to 
increase the growth by reducing unnecessary competition for light and 
growing species, and at the same time realize merchantable timber. 

In France the term "improvement cutting" means, as the words 
imply, the improvement of the stand by thinnings, or fellings which yield 
money returns. There appears to be no clearcut distinction as to the 
age of the stand when improvement fellings are applied, as may be seen 
by the quotation from the Malmifait working plan (p. 112). 

From the standpoint of silviculture it is essential that intermediate 
cuttings be ordered, in current working plans, by area and not by volume. 
Forest valuation should never interfere, as it has in the past, with silvi- 
culture. If the forester aims at checking excessive cuts he should pre- 
scribe the area to be cut over each year with a maximum volume merely 
as a check. Too often in the past the French forester has marked an im- 
provement cutting in a compartment only to find that it could not be 
properly executed because the working plan prescribed a maximum cut 
of 80 cords, whereas the marking properly executed should remove 
180 cords. Happily errors due to restraining the silviculturahst from 

21 In France the marking, which requires real technique, is always done under the 
personal supervision of a forest assistant, assistant supervisor, or supervisor. Even 
district foresters take part in important marking conferences. 



106 NATURAL REGENERATION 

really "purging" the stand are now well recognized in France and are 
avoided. Intermediate fellings should begin early, should be repeated 
as often as necessary, and should be governed only by good silvics. 

Cleaning (and Freeing) Young Stands.'-- — Jolyet describes cleanings 
as "the operation, which consists in retarding the development of 
secondary or too ambitious species, tending to improve the normal 
development of the future stand, consists in freeing these seedlings 
or 'degagements.' " Boppe says that "cleanings should aid the normal 
development of the best species, favor seedlings against sprouts, and 
should be started early, since they are only justified if in good time." 
They should be repeated as often as necessary to protect the more valu- 
able species. Schaeffer,-^ one of the foremost French conservators, 
recognized that cleanings referred especially to young stands. He 
wrote : 

"It is admitted today that a cleaning should only include small timber, and con- 
temporaneous authors reserve this term for the whole cultural assistance to be given 
young stands. However broad this definition may be, it appears to me to be still in- 
complete, for it lacks the idea of clearing brush from a soil under a mature stand. ' Clean' 
should signify: To make clean, clear; to relieve the soil of a forest of the weed growth 
(shrubs) means to many the very essence of cleaning; this aspect of the question should 
not be overlooked." 

But without doubt the most important aspect of cleaning is the 
cutting of small immature timber to improve the stand. 

Most important timber species, such as sessile oak, even when 10 
to 15 years old, have a slow rate of growth as compared with the weeds 
or poorer species which surround them. Therefore it is necessary to 
free them and assist them in their competition with weeds and poorer 
species. It is not necessarily desired to entirely cut out interfering 
shrubs or species, but rather to favor only the valuable species in their 
fight for existence, provided the siuTOunding brush does not interfere 
with the growth of the terminal shoot. It is even an advantage to 
have it in mixture, since it promotes height growth and prevents snow 
breakage or other damage. All weeds cut in a clearance are valueless. 
To remove them would be expensive, to burn them often dangerous. 
Where they must be cut level with the ground it would be unwise to 
leave them, and the usual practice is to pile them around the base of 
the reserved trees which still occupy the felling area before the final 
cutting. The forest guards are the ones who should make the cleanings 
and it is essential that the same individual trees should always be favored 
in subsequent operations, since it is obviously poor policy to favor one 

22 See Boppe, pp. 94, 134, 162, 200, 248, 254; and Jolyet, pp. 93, 114, 134, 154, 174, 
186, 200, 239, 243, 248, 254, 385. 

23 Du Ncttoiement dans les Bois. Par A. Schaeffer, Besan^on. 



CLEANING (AND FREEING) YOUNG STANDS 107 

sapling at one clearance and a different one at another [94] . A shade- 
enduring species such as beech, of course, does not require freeing to 
the same extent as does a light-demanding species such as oak [134]. 
Even the maritime pine, which is a rapidly gi'owing species and a prolific 
seeder, requires assistance against the genista, with which it is often 
in mixture [154]. Scotch pine, until it has developed above the heather, 
must always be assisted [162]. The young spruce does not resist shrubs 
even as well as the fir, and notwithstanding its rapid growth at the 
start it may often remain dominated by weeds unless cleanings are 
practiced [200]. In coppice-under-standards, it is particularly essential to 
protect the best species and the best seedlings or sprouts against competition 
with inferior species and weeds [243]. In conversion [254] cleanings are also 
essential. 

One of the most important objects in freeing desirable species is 
to give them the preference over less desired species which may be 
more rapidly gi-owing during youth. For example, in a mixed birch 
and Scotch pine stand, the birch might damage the Scotch pine, which 
is the more valuable, unless assistance were given it. 

According to Schaeffer cleanings in regular high forest should first of 
all destroy the weed trees, briars, and weeds which develop on rich 
soils, so as to conserve light, water, and food for the future commercial 
stand. But he cautions all foresters against the unnecessary cleaning 
of light-foHaged, short-lived trees that will do no material damage to 
the valuable species. He favors the Bagneris method of only topping 
competing umnerchantable weed trees instead of cutting them off at the 
stump. This method, which prevents sprouting, and though cheaper, it 
must be recognized, means more work because it must be done oftener; 
it should rarely be applied in the United States. The best time to clean 
out weeds from young growth is in the late summer or autumn; but for 
cleanings in stands the spring is best because, if too heavy, the stand 
has time to recover before snows. In fir the period is less important, but 
the winter is best. 

In selection forests the procedure is somewhat different. There are 
two schools; one beHeves that the ground cannot be too densely covered, 
while the other, led by Gurnaud, beHeves in periodic cleanings in the 
understory. Probably the theory of at least partial cleanings in selection 
forests is correct, but care must be taken to study the soil conditions. 
Some soils may need every shrub or weed as a protective cover. But 
since most selection forests are in the mountains, moderate cleanings 
are usually advisable at the time of felling the saw timber. This 
cleaning removes small trees damaged by exploitation, weed trees, 
holly, and even beech which is not required for soil cover in the moun- 
tains. 



108 NATURAL REGENERATION 

In coppice cleanings protect the seedlings. They must be started 
4 or 5 years after cutting the coppice and continue for 15 or 20 years. 
They act as a thinning in increasing growth and in removing the briars 
and weeds, weed trees, and poor stems of more valuable species. The 
increased growth due to a cleaning may be 40 to 50 per cent or more. 
Where the coppice is grown under standards the cleaning is all the 
more essential, because the best standards are of seedling origin, a class 
of tree especially protected by the cleaning. To give the best results 
cleanings, according to Schaeffer, must be made every 3 or 4 years. 
The growth of the standards is increased. Jolyet is satisfied with clean- 
ings at 5, 10, or 15 years. 

Thinnings. — Thinnings have three main objects: (1) To eliminate 
the least desirable specimens; (2) to increase the rate of height and 
diameter growth of the final stand by artificially removing a portion of 
it in order that the competition for existence need not weaken the best 
trees; (3) to improve the quality of the trees of the final stand. (See 
Fig. 9, a and h). It is erroneous to believe that a very dense stand 
means rapidity of height growth. To secure proper development trees 
must have sufficient growing space so that their crowns can increase in 
vigor. 

While thinnings do not always result in a greater final yield the 
quantity of large, good-quality timber is certainly increased and the 
intermediate plus the final yield of a thinned stand is always more 
than the final yield of an unthinned stand. Thinnings decrease insect 
and fungus loss as well as windfall and snow breakage. There is a 
general feeling among foresters that the French believe in making heavier 
thinnings than do the Germans. The old axiom of thinning early and 
often is actually practiced in the forest in France and is advocated in 
the text-books. The French believe in thinning the top story in order to 
decrease the struggle for existence among the dominant species.-^ On the other 
hand, as in other divisions of French silviculture, the French methods are 
simple and direct. They have not classified the thinnings, as have the 
Germans, into a large number of grades. 

In coppice with long rotations the French believe in moderate thin- 
nings [111].-^ Most thinnings start in France when the stand is 20 
years old and continue every 6 to 20 years. They are marked by the 
guards and rangers under the personal direction of the inspector, assist- 
ant inspector, or forest assistant [134]. With a species like maritime 

^^ The bracketed page references are to Jolyet. 

25 This naturally is not an ironclad rule. In the forests of Mouthe and Fuvelle (Jura 
fir) up to 50 to 60 years the thinnings were largely in the understory; only after the stand 
had closed were the thinnings in the top story. This is logical. After 60 to 70 years the 
thinnings in fir may remove up to one-fifth the stand. 



THINNINGS 



109 



pine it is invariably the practice to make heavy thinnings -^ in order 
that the crowns may be fully developed when tapping for resin begins. 
These start at 10 years of age and continue every 5 years until tapping 
to death begins at about 20 years. Jolyet says [155]: 




A B 

Fig. 9 (a). — Pole stand of spruce at an altitude (west exposure) of 4,590 feet in the 
communal forest of Beaufort. There are 364 trees per acre, yielding 117 cubic meter8 
(23,000 feet board measure). The thinnings thus far have too much light to permit 
crown development. 

(6). — Spruce and fir running 255 trees and 283 cubic meters (74,000 feet board 
measure) to the acre, in the Canton du Mont, communal forest of Thones-Ville, at an 
altitude of 3,120 feet on a west exposure. Thinnings have been insufficient to free the 
crowns of the most promising trees. 

26 This is entirely proper with maritime pine but with spruce or fir, for example, care 
should be taken not to open up the stand too suddenly. The chief danger in the United 
States is of too heavy thinnings because of the need of a large cut at one time to reduce 



110 NATURAL REGENERATION 

"At 15 years there is a second thinning (made with an axe), this coupled with a 
pruning of the remaining trees up to the maximum height the face will reach, that is to 
say up to 6.6 to 9.8 feet above the ground. At 20 years there is a third thinning, pre- 
ceded by the tapping of the trees destined to be felled. There is no reason to try to 
maintain the vigor of these trees; the essential is to realize as quickly as possible all the 
resin which they can yield; they are . . . tapped to death at 25 years, and at 30 
years there is a fourth and a fifth thinning, always preceded by tapping to death. After 
the fifth thinning is cut out the stand becomes very open; it is hardly complete. This 
condition is, however, favorable to the growth of maritime pine, since the crown, when 
well thinned or in full sunlight, produces more rapidly the substances necessary for the 
formation of wood and resin. The pine trees which remain are now called -pins de place 
and are tapped alive, that is to say they are worked with a moderate number of faces so 
as to obtain a reasonable amount of resin without compromising the vitality of the tree. 
This tapping will be continued, moreover, during the entire life of the tree (with 1 or 2 
years of respite). In addition the thinnings (every 5 years) are continued in the stand 
until the time comes for regeneration by clear cutting; it should be understood that each 
thinning is preceded by the tapping to death of the trees marked for feUing." 

In Scotch pine it is often dangerous to wait until trees are large enough 
to yield mine props; it is better to start thinnings earlier, say at 18 or 
20 years, as purely cultural operations. After once starting they should 
be made every 7 to 8 years [163]. In mixed stands [182], such as beech 
and fir, the thinnings should favor the fir against the beech, since the 
latter is essentially adapted to an understory rather than to the major 
stand [182]. In even-aged stands it is the French practice to choose 
the trees which should form the future stand and then favor them in 
the thinnings. The mere removal of suppressed or intermediate trees is 
not countenanced, since the French believe very firmly in thinning the 
upper story [200]. The chief aim in making thinnings in the coppice 
of a coppice-under-standards stand 8 to 10 years before the coppice is 
cut is to increase the diameter growth of the most vigorous trees which 
will make the best standards for the upper story during the succeeding 
rotations [245]. 

Another operation, in reality a thinning or loosening (depressage) 
in seedling stands, is very necessary in crowded maritime pine regenera- 
tion, and often in dense clumps of Scotch pine reproduction, to prevent 
damage by fungus through overcrowding. Jolyet -'' says of it : 

the cost of logging. Huff el says in the preface to Vol. II of Economie Forestiere: 
"Exaggerated thinnings are fatal to the health and finally to the very existence of forests. 
By breaking the cover and uncovering the soil, they diminish or destroy its productive- 
ness. The humus disappears; the soil dries out, packs and hardens. The forest is 
invaded by weeds, heather, and grass; the valuable species are gradually eliminated. 
If made too suddenly thinnings cause windfall. Too heavy thinnings are uneconomic 
since they increase the volume of branches and sapwood, yield short tapering boles. 
. . . They also decrease the quality of wood. . . ." 

" Influence des Eclaircies dans les Peuplements rdguliers de Sapin. E. Cuif, 
1905. 



IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS 



111 



"It is necessary to break up these thickets by cutting a certain number of seedlings. 
The term ' depressage ' (literally loosening) explains well enough the nature of the work 
which is done with a bill hook or pruning iron. To sum up, the 'depressage' is not a 
freeing (degagement), but more nearly a first thinning executed in very young stands." 

There can be no question but that thinnings are profitable when the 
trees to be cut can be sold. As a concrete example of increment the 
following is cited for a fir stand in France: 





Plot A, 
thinned 


Plot B, 
unthinned 


1913 value of stand 


$889.13 
667.01 


$1,687.78 
43 39 


Sales since 1893 






Totals 


$1,556.14 
1,113.41 

$442.73 
3.76 
1.37 


$1,731.17 
1,323.21 

$407 96 


Price in 1893 


Difference 


Per cent of value increment 


2 80 


Increase in average price per cubic meter (per cent) . . 


.97 



Thus thinnings, properly executed, mcrease average annual revenue 
and the unit of value of the final product. On account of the larger 
logs in another plot the price increment per meter was 17 cents. Cuif 
believes that good thinnings will enable the State to decrease the ro- 
tations. 

Huffel cites some authoritative figures for the growth per cent for a 
spruce forest thinned and unthinned. Starting with 20 years the growth 
per cent is 0.7 for both stands; at 50 years the unthinned stand was 
growing at the rate of 4.3 per cent and the thinned at 4.5 per cent, at 100 
years the growth per cent for the unthinned stand was 2.6 and for the 
thinned 3 per cent. 

The losses througn poorly executed thinnings may be lasting. 
Schaeffer ^^ cited a case where a compartment was ruined for 30 years 
because the officer in charge of the marking did not study the stand 
curves in the working plan (see p. 216). He cited diameter limit mark- 
ing as abominable. Important marking, according to French belief, 
should always be executed under the direction of a trained officer. 

Improvement Fellings. — French text-books do not refer to " improve- 
ment fellings" as such. They describe freeings, cleanings, thinnings, and 
accompanying cultural operations. But in State forest and communal 
working plans there are always instructions under the head "Coupes 
d' amelioration," as distinct from regeneration fellings and freeings. 

In the forest of Argon according to the original working plan, when 

'^^ Sylviculture Administrative. A. Schaeffer. Besangon, 1907. 



112 NATURAL REGENERATION 

the stand is 50 to 60 years old there are careful thinnings in the poles 
and the removal of dry, suppressed trees and final fellings with light 
thinnings in the pole stands and the gradual elimination of the beech. 
According to the working plan : 

"1. In the spring, one shall carefully reconnoiter the windfall, dry trees, dead trees, 
or those declining in vigor; the volume shall be determined from the volume table. 
Under the head of defective wood should be included all trees seriously defective, such 
as rotten, fungus infected, or very crooked trees, or those exuding resin or showing 
cancer." 

This clean-up in the almost mature stands is in effect an improve- 
ment felling. In the forest of Malmifait, under the heading "Improve- 
ment Fellings," the working plan prescribed the following: 

"The cultural rules to apply will vary according to the working group. In the third 
group (the first to be regenerated so far as the mature reserves are concerned, which 
must be zealously kept to furnish most of the future seed trees), it is necessary that only 
dead and dying trees be cut and everywhere on those areas where it is impossible to find 
suitable seed trees in the poles; on those areas all the trees are defective or hollow. In 
the poles the young trees of desirable species, which must furnish the future seed trees, 
will be freed rather energetically and prepared for seeding purposes along with the mature 
reserves and especially when these reserves are lacking; moreover the thinnings will be 
very light so as not to expose the soil; otherwise the seeding would be started (prema- 
tm-ely) along with briars and grass which would form, later in the third period, an ob- 
stacle to natural reproduction. The same cultural rules will be applied in the fourth 
group, but with even greater moderation; it will be possible to sacrifice some of the old 
trees which are hollow or in mediocre condition in favor of good stems, still young, 
existing in the poles; l)ut hero, also, the thinning as a whole will be light. . . . In the 
young growth of the fifth group, where old reserves are lacking or few in number, the 
oak must be freed, and the good beech as required ; there should be no hesitation, in the 
areas where the oak is the dominant species and where the beech is insufficient, in 
sacrificing the former of these two species to assist the latter, so as always to make sure 
of a proper mixture of these two species. 

"Finally, in the compartments of the second group where it will be necessary to pass 
most often, the special cutting scheme provides for four fellings instead of two, for the 
other groups, during the last 26 years of the period; the improvement cutting will take the 
form of cleanings, liberation cuttings, or thinnings, according to the condition of the 
stands; besides it is necessary, wherever the regeneration does not take hold, to assist 
the seeding by means of wounding the soil and to complete it by plantations of oak 
and even beech where necessary. It is essential to continually see to it at the start that 
the seedlings and plants are not choked by the briars . . . and later on that the 
promising individuals of the good species should not be hindered in their growth by 
secondary species. These operations are especially delicate. So far as possible they 
will actually be done by the employees as betterments (improvement work). They 
must be carefully and progressively executed at short intervals on the same ground. 
Often, especially at the start, it would be better to cut out the weed trees gradually 
rather than to remove them all at the same time, which would vmcover the seedlings 
too brusquely. . . . Often it will be preferable to kill the weed trees by girdling 
rather than to cut them level with the ground, which would favor the production of 
vigorous sprouts, able to very rapidly interfere with the young growth of valuable 
species." 



IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS 113 

Judging from this quotation the term ''improvement feUings" in 
France is used rather as a general term to signify any kind of intermediate 
felling. It has been employed by some officers in a narrower sense to 
denote the improvement of mature stands prior to regeneration, where 
dead, dying, and diseased trees are cut out systematically to reaHze 
profit on what would otherwise constitute a loss. 



CHAPTER VI 1 
ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

French Policy (p. 114). General, Choice between Sowing and Planting. 

Seed (p. 117). Cultural Value of Seed, Seed Testing, Rules for Seed Control. 

Nurseries (p. 122). Location of Nurseries, Nursery Practice, Two Sample Nurs- 
eries. 

Planting (p. 125). Cultivation and Spacing, Age of Plants, Time to Plant, Planta- 
tion by Holes, French Planting Technique, Cover and Protection, Species and Methods 
to Use, Chief Dangers. 

Field Sowing (p. 132). Prepared and Unprepared Soil, Amount to Sow, Season for 
Sowing, Summary of Sowing Methods as Applied to Species and Regions. 

FRENCH POLICY 

General. — Notwithstanding the sentiment in France in favor of 
regeneration by natural means it is obvious that with only 18.7 per cent 
of the land under forest, considerable areas must be restocked artifi- 
cially if France is not to suffer for lack of wood (of the kinds needed). 
Thus far the Government has devoted the most time and revenue to 
the reclamation 'of the sand wastes in the Landes (see Chapter VIII) 
and to the reforestation of lands in the mountains (see Chapter VII), 
denuded through past improvident overcutting and overgrazing. Next 
in importance has been the planting and sowing in the Sologne and 
Champagne. Besides this restocking of barren areas there has been 
occasional sowing and planting to supplement natural regeneration 
when this has been a partial failure. There are always fail places in 
natural reproduction where nature must be assisted to maintain pro- 
duction and to keep the present stand from deterioration. For example, 
with more than three-fifths of the forest area in coppice or coppice- 
under-standards these stands must be continually sown to oak or under- 
planted (the usual practice) to prevent blanks. In conversion from 
these systems to high forest more desirable species than can be secured 
by natural seeding must be introduced. 

Too frequently, however, the private owner has allowed his forest to 
deteriorate because sowing or planting involved direct expenditures 
to-day, with returns deferred until the next generation. 

To practice good forestry is to save, so it is somewhat surprising that 

1 Prof. J. W. Toumey, Dean of the School of Forestry, Yale University, and Lt.-Col. 
A. S. Peck kindly reviewed this chapter and made many valuable suggestions. 

114 



CHOICE BETWEEN SOWING AND PLANTING 115 

to-day there is not a larger per cent of French territory under well- 
managed forest. The main reasons for this deficiency can be traced to 
the vicissitudes of families and of the nation, coupled with the selfish- 
ness of pleasure-loving nobles, kings, and politicians. Yet, curiously 
enough, the search after pleasure, in the form of hunting and shooting, 
is responsible for some of the most famous high forests of France. 

Trees are sometimes planted as shelter-belts for the fields on the 
right of way along the railways. This apparently is a wise use of land 
otherwise unproductive, but it is very hard on the eyes of travelers. 
Where the railroad grade passes through cuts trees have been planted 
to hold the earth and prevent erosion. This is a practice which American 
railroad engineers might well follow. At Toulouse cypress trees are 
planted along canals to protect them against drying winds. 

Roadside tree planting is practiced very generally throughout France 
and results in endless rows of trees flanking the highways which is one 
of the characteristics of the French countryside that impresses itself 
most indelibly on the traveler. 

French writers ^ class (a) the forestation of the Landes and mountains 
as obligatory forestation and (6) the stocking of poor agricultural land 
or waste land, which has never been cultivated, as optional. From the 
standpoint of public economics no nation can afford to permit land 
suitable for growing crops of trees to lie idle. If the individual cannot 
afford the proper forestation the State must step in. There should be 
no waste land nor should its use for forestry be optional. It should be 
obligatory, but with the alternative of yielding ownership to the State 
under equitable conditions. With at least 300,000 acres partially or 
completely denuded by the recent war, France has a vital problem of 
reforestation to meet and must import a large portion of her seed or 
plants. It would certainly be a just settlement if the Germans were 
made to furnish much of the seed and plant material. 

No attempt will be made to treat the subject of artificial stocking 
systematically; instead only the most interesting and instructive phases 
of the problems will be covered in varying detail. 

Choice between Sowing and Planting. — According to such foresters 
as Lorentz and Parade field sowing is considered especially useful on a 
large scale, since it is alleged to be simpler and cheaper than plantations 
and because the result is more nearly like the natural forest. On the 
other hand, it is recognized that the plantation is surer and results in 
more regular stands. Therefore where the soil is dry, where it is de- 
nuded, and where it is eroding, as in the majority of cases in the Alps, 
planting is preferable to sowing. While no absolute rule can be formu- 
lated for the choice between sowing and planting, Demontzey, the 
2 For example, see Jolyet, pp. 467-468. 



116 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

father of mountain planting, believes that planting is usually preferable 
and that sowing should be done only in special cases, since the sowing, 
while sometimes less costly than planting, is less certain and often in- 
complete. Sowing is best, according to the French writers, on some 
kinds of rocky soil v/here plantations are made with difficulty, where 
seed is very cheap, and where the soil need not be previously prepared. 
Otherwise it is usually more expensive. 

Planting was neglected for a long time in France, but Government 
forestation has given it an impetus and formally established its desira- 
bility under certain conditions. Planting makes possible the control 
of species, mixtures, and spacing, and is generally considered better on 
very rich soils where weeds abound, where there is damage from rodents 
or squirrels, and in hot and dry regions where the young trees cannot 
be protected but must resist the heat. For successful direct seeding, 
it has been found necessary that (1) there be no dense cover that will 
shut out the light, (2) the young plants should have a little protection 
against the snow, (3) the soil should not be too exposed to heaving by 
frost, but that it should have a moist surface, and (4) the slopes should 
not be too steep. Otherwise the plants will be eroded or covered by 
earth transported by flood water. There are other considerations. 
Certain seeds take more than a year to germinate so that they remain 
exposed for a long time to the different agencies of destruction. For 
example, cembric pine seeds and some species of ash belong to this class. 
Therefore, planting is to be preferred to sowing for these species. Not- 
withstanding this, however, cembric pine is sometimes sown because of 
the shortness of the favorable season at the high altitudes and the diffi- 
culty of handling labor in these out-of-the-way places. Of course, 
species which develop a long taproot at the start are better sown, as, 
for example, the holm oak and the maritime pine. In the case of the 
cypress it is better to plant because a certain number of seeds bear 
plants having a pyramidal form. In Savoie and in the Basses-Alpes 
sowing is often employed, in connection with planting, at high alti- 
tudes and on stable ground for the cembric pine, the mountain pine, 
and the larch; spruce is also sown in Savoie. In the Basses-Alpes, 
Drome, and Vaucluse acorns and aleppo pine seed are sown; beech 
nuts are also sown in the Basses-Alpes. Aleppo pine comes up well 
from sowing operations in the Maritime Alpes. Scotch pine, Corsican 
pine, and maritime pine are sown successfully in the northeastern part 
of the Gard department. Elsewhere in this department sowing is re- 
served for the summits and high altitudes where the wind is very strong. 
The sowing of Scotch pine on heather has been employed in the Central 
Plateau, in which region sowing and planting generally give about 
equivalent results. In the Ardeche the sowing of fir under the shelter 



CULTURAL V.ILUE OF SEED 



117 



of open stands of beech or pine often succeeds, as in other places where 
this species is suited to the chmate. In the Lozere seeding is employed 
only for the pedunculate oak, chestnut, and Scotch pine. In the Aude 
and the Pyrenees-Orientales holm oak and maritime pine are sown. 
Pedunculate oak, chestnut, and aleppo pine in this region are both sown 
and planted, with a preference for sowing. 



SEED 

Cultural Value of Seed. — It is important for successful artificial 
forestation that the real cultural value of the seed to be used should 
be known in advance. Much attention has been given to this point. 
After comparing the results obtained at Paris and Barres with those 
at other experiment stations, Fron concludes that the average seed 
value of the principal tree species, bought in the open market, is as 
given below. This signifies that for larch 10 pounds must be used 
where the sowing plans call for 4 pounds. 

TABLE 9. — AVERAGE SEED VALUE 



Species 



Scotch pine. . . 
Mountain pine 
Austrian pine. 
Maritime pine. 
Aleppo pine. . . 

Spruce 

Larch 

Fir 



Average 
purity, 
per cent 



95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

80-85+ 

88+ 



Average 

germination, 

per cent 



75-80+ 

70 

75-80+ 

75 

80 

75-80 

45-50 

20 



Duration of 
test, days 



10 
14 
30 
30 
42 
30 
30 
42 



Average 

cultural value, 

per cent ^ 



70-75+ 
66+ 
70-75+ 
70+ 
75 

70-75 
40+ 
16.6(Zurich) 



° Obtained by dividing the product of germination and purity coefficients by 100. 

The experiments conducted also emphasized the fact, now so generally 
known, that forest tree seeds cannot be stored successfully without 
losing so much of their germinative per cent that storage becomes un- 
profitable, unless kept in air-tight retainers — not yet generally em- 
ployed by seed houses. Scotch pine, with a cultural value of 74 to 79 
per cent, was reduced to 49 to 58 per cent the second year, 28 to 45 per 
cent the third year, and less than 5 per cent the sixth year. These are 
maximum losses. The cultural value of mountain pine and Austrian 
pine decreases as rapidly, but maritime pine stands storage much better, 
and even after 10 years' storage has a cultural value of 40 to 60 per 
cent. Spruce seed values decrease rapidly with storage; if 73 to 77 per 
cent the first year, they are 53 to 62 per cent the second, and but 26 to 
44 per cent the third year. It might almost be said that larch seed 



118 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 



cannot be stored; if 39 to 44 per cent the first year, it is only 16 to 18 
per cent the second, and 5 to 8 per cent the third year. 

Seed Testing. — As a result of these experiments a fixed procedure was 
adopted for official tests on tree seeds. It must be known ^ (1) whether 
seed can germinate and what the germination per cent will be; (2) per 
cent of impurities, since the germination per cent plus the purity per 
cent gives the cultural value of the seed, subject to practical field condi- 
tions which always modify the supposed cultural value. In addition 
to the above factors it is also necessary to know (3) germinative 
energy. 

In 1872 germinative seed tests were started at the secondary school 
for rangers and guards at Barres. An experimental seed-testing station 
at Paris was established in 1884.^ There were 117 analyses in 1895 
and 2,201 in 1902-03. The object was to control and better the tree- 
seed market of France. This seed-testing laboratory enabled the State 
to purchase seed with a guaranteed germinative per cent, and the cumu- 
lative result of germinative tests at the various stations has made it 
possible that no one need purchase or sow tree seeds without knowing 
their germinative value. The first column following gives the' gross 
amount of seed required for a complete test, and the second column the 
amount usually required in the laboratory for the actual test. 

TABLE 10. — SEED REQUIRED 



Birch and analogous species 


Seed required, 
complete test 


Seed required, 
actual test 


Grams 


Troy 
ounces 


Grams 


Troy 
ounces 


Scotch pine, Corsican pine, aleppo pine 

Spruce, larch, alder, hornbeam, maple 

Cembric pine, fir, cedar, oak, beech 

Acacia, ash, linden, maritime pine 


50 
100 
200 
250 


1.6 
3.2 
6.4 

8 


20 

30 

50 

100 


0.6 
1.0 
1.6 
3.2 







3 Analyse et Controle des Semences Forestieres, par A. Fron, Paris, 1906, pp. 1-128. 
Those interested in seed control should study this monograph. 

^ So far as possible the French forest administration collects its own seed. Various 
local dry-kilns have been established as, for example, at Murat (Cantal), Puy-de- 
Dome, and Gap for Scotch pine; at Modane, Briangon, and Cavanasse for mountain 
pine, although some Scotch pine is produced at Cavanasse. At Salzman, Corsican 
pine seed is produced. At Montiers (Savoie) spruce; and aleppo pine at Font-de- 
rOrme (Vaucluse), d'Aubagne (Bouches-du-Rhone). Maritime pine is secured from 
Lavandee, although a part is secured from permittees who have the right to collect 
cones in the dunes of Gascogne. Larch and cembric pine are purchased in the Hautes- 
Alpes and Basses-Alpes and distributed from Embrun and Barcelonette. It is in- 
teresting to note that the larch seed is collected by beating the trees when they are 
ready to shed, between January 1 and March 1. 



SEED TESTING 119 

For determining the weight by vohnne one and one-half quarts 
are usually required. It goes without saying that the samples from 
each lot must be chosen with the utmost care. First, the shipment 
must be thoroughly mixed, then at least ten samples, selected from 
different places in the pile, are mixed and a final average lot selected. 
When the seed comes in sacks ^ samples can be extracted from each 
sack or from a certain proportion mixed together and sampled as given 
above. Where samples must be sent away for testing they must be 
labeled and sealed in air-tight bags, but if the water content of the 
sample is to be determined the shipment is made preferably in corked 
glass or air-tight metal boxes. It is of value to keep samples of seed 
known to be normal to use as a basis for comparson ; with reliable samples 
officers that are not experts can readily check species and, occasionally, 
varieties. The separation of the debris from the real seed can best be 
made by hand. The seeds are placed on a glass and separated from the 
wings, particles of cone, refuse, debris, wood, sand, and damaged or 
puny seed by the use of a penknife. The operation must be completed 
as soon as possible to guard against changes in weight due to drying. 
The absolute weight is determined by averaging the weight of two 
lots of 1,000 seeds each; with this figure the number of seeds to the pound 
can be decided by multiplication. When the amount of seed per quart 
is to be secured a number of quarts must be averaged owing to the 
variations usually encountered. 

A reliable germination test must include four separate lots of 100 
seeds each, or for acorns and nuts four of 50 seeds each; the choice of 
which seeds to use must be by lot to eliminate absolutely the personal 
element. After the tests on each lot the results ought not to vary more 
than 10 per cent for seed with high germination powers nor more than 
15 per cent for seed germinating around 50 per cent. Before the germi- 
nation tests it is customary to soak conifer seeds in sterilized luke- 
warm water for from 6 to 15 hours. This time counts on the total length 
of time allowed for germination. For germination Fron recommends 
a heavy sterihzed blotting paper or sand with a Schribaux stove, the 
humidity being kept at 50 per cent to 60 per cent during the entire test. 
No chemicals are used. The temperature is maintained between 
20° C. (68° F.) and 30° C. (86° F.); for conifers Fron recommends a 
temperature of 20° C. to 25° C. (68° F. to 77° F.) during 18 hours, and 
25° C. to 30° C. (77° F. to 86° F.) during 6 hours, but Schwappach 
recommends 25° C. and 30° C. (68° F. to 86° F.), respectively. Mari- 
time pine can stand up to 35° C. (95° F.) for short intervals. Ordinarily 
no light is admitted, but alder and birch appear to germinate more 

5 In Germany the sampler (Sonde) of Professor Noble, made by Mathes, of Tharandt, 
Saxony, has been used with success. 



120 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

rapidly if they are exposed to daylight. The official duration for tests 
has been 30 days for Scotch pine, Corsican pine, spruce, larch and most 
conifers, willow, alder, elm, hornbeam, maple, oak, and beech, and 42 
days for maritime pine, aleppo pine, mountain pine, fir, and white 
pine (P. strohus). 

After these tests are completed note is always made as to how many 
of the ungerminated seeds are still fresh, but these figures do not enter 
into the calculation of cultural value. 

To obtain the actual sowing value of any seed the product of the 
coefficient of purity and the germination per cent is divided by 100. 
The germinative energy is measured by the number of seeds which have 
germinated after a fixed period, which is usually 10 days for species 
germinated for 30 days in all and 14 days for those requiring 42 days to 
complete the normal tests. 

The following variations are allowed in deciding whether to accept 
purchases or not : For germination per cent, 5 per cent for species running 
90 per cent and more; 8 per cent for species less than 90 per cent; purity, 
2 per cent and 3 per cent; cultural or real value, 6 per cent and 9 per 
cent. As Fron remarks, "If the cultural value were guaranteed at 80 
per cent but showed only 70 per cent or less, the seed could be accepted." 
For American conditions such percentages set too high a standard; they 
should be at least 10 to 20 per cent less. 

The water content of samples is found by taking 10 to 20 grams 
(0.3 to 0.6 ounces T.) and maintaining it for three days at a tempera- 
ture of 105° 0. (221° F.). The loss in weight after being dried gives 
the desired per cent when divided by 100. 

The station record shows how the tests were made, the amount of 
seed received and actually used, date seed was shipped and received, 
how packed, and conditions after transport. 

Rules for Seed Control. — French foresters have tried to have all 
sales of tree seeds controlled by the State so that buying would be done 
on the basis of cultural value rather than on a gamble, but as yet no 
such regulation is in general force. The proposed rules to govern the 
analysis and control of forest tree seeds are as follows: 

"Article I. — Name of method of analysis and of control. 

A. The aim of the analysis and control of forest seeds is as follows : 

1. To centralize everything touching on the study, analysis, and control of 

forest seed. 

2. To contribute to the continuous improvement of collected forest seeds 

sold or utilized in France, based on the results of authentic samples of 
different kinds and by researches on the physiologic growth, selection, 
and variety with the aim of practical results. 

3. To contribute to the study of exotic forest species by experiments carried 

out on the seeds locally and in arboretums and experimental plots. 



RULES FOR SEED CONTROL 121 

B. So far as the analysis and control of forest seeds is concerned the experiments 
will determine: 

1. Correctness, so far as possible, of genus or species. 

2. The purity. 

3. Absolute weight. 

4. The actual weight in case demand is made. 

5. Germinative figure and germinative per cent. 

6. Water content. 

The experiments must be carried out in conformity with exact technical methods. 
The experiments with knife without being proved by germination may suffice for the 
large seeds (cembric pine, oak, beech, etc.), but give only approximate results. The 
results given by the experimental service are obtained by experimenting with average 
specimens, that is to say that the advertisements of the analysis executed by the ex- 
perimental service cannot be utilized by the vendor as exact data on the value of a 
given purchase. 

Article II. — Control of the sale of forest seeds. 

1. Analysis of control. Contract houses (with the aim of controlling the sale of 
forest seeds) and experimental service can conclude contracts with seed 
merchants entitled contracts of control. The list of houses placed under 
the control of the experimental service can be mailed free to persons who 
demand it. It may be published. The conditions of these contracts are 
as follows : 

A. The house promises to observe the rules in every particular. 

B. The house engages to indicate on the bill the guarantees for the merchan- 

dise sold and dehvered to the purchasers under the conditions given in 
the certificates of control and to furnish, at the expense of the house, an 
analysis of control. 

C. The purchasers of seed from a controlled house acquire, if purchasing the 

minimum amount stipulated, without further formality and without 
special authorization, the right to have a free analysis by the experi- 
mental bureau of the material purchased. 

D. The controlled houses must agree that the analysis made by this bureau 

shall be final for the purposes of fixing the amount of the bill. If the 
results of the analysis do not correspond with the guarantee given, they 
promise to make it up to the purchaser. 

E. The houses controlled do not pay any annual charges to the testing bureau 

. . . since the expenses are borne by the Maison de Commerce. . . . 

F. The houses which do not guarantee to their purchasers free analysis or 

which do not even give a limited guarantee cannot be admitted as houses 
controlled by the bureau. 

G. The controlled houses are forbidden to furnish several certificates of free 

analysis for a single sale of the same sort of seed. Each certificate is 
valuable only for the special sale for which it has been delivered. 
H. It is forbidden to insert in the contracts of control any stipulations con- 
cerning the probable analysis cost. The analysis of this kind must be 
paid for according to the tariff." ^ 

8 Such a system of general seed control is needed in the United States. Under 
present conditions a private purchaser of forest tree seeds has no guarantee of the real 



122 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

NURSERIES 

Location of Nurseries. — Judging from visits to a number of nurseries 

(1) near areas under natural regeneration and (2) at regular forestation 
projects, France has not much to teach us in the minutiae of modern 
nursery practice. What there is to learn is chiefly along the lines of 
policy. For example, French foresters have demonstrated that in the 
forestation projects in the mountains it is important to have small local 
nurseries near the area to be forested, while the tendency in the United 
States has been to maintain large central nurseries from which stock 
can be shipped. On the National Forests in the United States, according 
to Greeley: 

"The policy has been pretty generally adopted of maintaining large nurseries rather 
than small ones, notwithstanding the shipping cost and the danger of the stock drying 
out in transit. A few years ago a large number of so-called ranger nurseries were es- 
tablished on almost every Forest, but this proved expensive and unsatisfactory. Many 
of the rangers wasted time on their nursery work and it seriously interfered with their 
regular executive duties." 

At Barcelonnette, in the Basses-Alpes, they have tried three kinds of 
nurseries: (1) Permanent or central nurseries, (2) so-called "flying" 
nurseries, and (3) fixed local nurseries. 

Permanent or central nurseries are now rare. Small temporary or 
"flying" nurseries in or near the area to be sown are extremely popular. 
After they have produced once or twice and the nearby planting is 
completed they are abandoned. The small fixed local nurseries, often 
two or three in each working group, are placed conveniently near plant- 
ing sites where for a number of years material will be required. 

Departing somewhat from this practice, Dinner, an eminent author- 
ity on forestation, had very few temporary nurseries in the Maritime 
Alps because he believed in thorough irrigation, and it was often diffi- 
cult to secure a certain water supply near the planting site. Dinner 
used 1 to 3 year old untransplanted stock and developed a formula to 
govern the size of his nurseries. For 100 acres of planting site his nursery 

, . planting site area 100 ,, • i ^i ^ ^i • i j 

covered 1 acre or ^ = — — He said that this worked 

nursery area 1 

out with remarkable accuracy, and cautioned against establishing nurs- 
eries at too high an altitude (where the climate is severe) because of 
the increased cost of working. 

The following general principles have been developed in France 
to govern the establishment of nurseries: 

cultural value. Other commodities, such as lumber, wool, or cotton are sold on the 
basis of grade or quality. If our export of tree seeds is to grow a definite scheme of 
seed control will be essential in order to protect foreign purchasers against fraud. 



NURSERY PRACTICE 123 

It is advisable to locate nurseries near the land to be restocked to 
reduce the inconvenience and cost of transport, provided the climate 
is not too severe. They are usually established on a bench where the 
soil is sufficiently deep and fresh, near a brook or a spring, and near a 
forest house or camp. 

The higher the altitude the more the plants may suffer from frost, 
from throwing, or from the snow; therefore the nursery should not be 
established at an altitude higher than the average elevation at which 
the species are to be used ; in the Alps and Pyrenees it is rarely advisable 
to establish nm*series at a higher elevation than 5,600 feet. It must be 
borne in mind that the growing season at high altitudes is very short, 
the growth is slow, and the dangers from snow, etc., considerable. Nurs- 
eries in the Cevennes or the Central Plateau are rarely higher than 
4,600 feet. 

If it is necessary the plants can be transported and heeled in where 
they are to be used at high altitudes the autumn preceding field work; 
or they can be heeled in at the nursery itself in order to retard vegetation 
where nurseries are situated considerably below the planting area. 
One should not hold stock at the nursery for later shipment into higher 
altitudes if the nursery is much lower or on a warmer site. Ship earlier 
and heel in where they are to be planted. 

The usual nursery practice in regions where regular reforestation 
work is carried on is as follows: The soil is cultivated to a depth of 16 
to 20 inches, leaving the humus near the surface, and the French pohcy 
is to use plenty of fertilizer — either manure or any standard chemical 
type of plant food. As much vegetable mould as possible is retained 
in the soil. It favors the seedling, the transplant, and all other forms of 
vegetation, and sometimes doubles the growth. Usually sowing is in 
strips 2.6 to 3.9 feet in width according to the slope; the sowing on the 
strips is usually in drills about 1.1 inches apart. Conifers are covered 
with about 0.4 inch of soil. To conserve the freshness of the soil the 
area sown is often covered with one layer of moss or pine needles. Some- 
times flat stones are placed between the drills to prevent throwing and 
to conserve the moisture. Before germination the seeds are protected 
against birds; weeding is done as required. As a protection against the 
sun in summer lath shade frames are used or else branches are stuck 
in the ground at each side of the strips and inclined toward the center. 
As a rule, the simplest possible methods are followed. 

Nursery Practice. — One moderate watering is favored and then only 
when the germination is being hindered by drought or the health and 
vigor of the plants require moisture. But much irrigation washes the 
soil, decreases its fertility, and exaggerates the growth of the plants, 
so that later they are all the more susceptible to drought. Irrigation 



124 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

should be followed by cultivation. Yet it should be noted that Dinner 
departed from this policy in the Maritime Alps where the chmate is 
especially dry. 

The object is to produce nursery stock which will have: ^ 

"1. A complete well-developed root system, with regular and numerous rootlets. 

"2. A straight regular stem, a well branched and vigorous crown with lateral 
branches proportionate to the age of the stock. 

"3. Foliage or buds complete and well-formed. 

"4. A healthy appearance, the stem and roots without any wound or suspicious 
scars." 

Two Sample Nurseries. — A model nursery representing the best of 
French nursery practice ^ is to be seen at the Barres Secondary School 
for Rangers. The seed here is carefully stored. It is left in sacks no 
longer than necessary and is frequently shifted so as to be thoroughly 
aerated. As a general rule, the scales and debris are kept with the 
seed, approximating the natural method of leaving the seed in the cones, 
which is recognized as the best. The nursery consists of twenty-seven 
plots, each 0.037 acre in extent, with two-thirds in cultivation and one- 
third in paths. The work is very systematically arranged. Every year 
one plot is sown, another transplanted, while the third furnishes the 
plants for shipment after a year in the transplant beds. Each plot con- 
sists of ten strips 33 feet long and 3.3 feet wide, separated by 2-foot 
paths. Each strip has six lines of plants, single or double, separated 
by 6.3 inches from axis to axis with a margin on the edge of 3 inches. 
The sowing for most species ^ is done as early in the spring as possible, 
beginning not later than March 15. 

An annual is usually sown and plowed in once every three years to 
enrich the soil. A very simple sowing board is used, V-shaped (double 
or single), and about 1 inch deep. This is merely pressed in the ground 
in a straight line and the seed distributed along the bottom of the de- 
pression thus made. 

The beds are protected against birds and rodents by small frames 4 
inches high covered with 1-inch, or smaller, wire mesh. The frames 
are covered with a few branches for protection against the sun for six 
to eight weeks after the seed has germinated. Rodents have been suc- 
cessfully destroyed by strychnine which was mixed with flour, placed 
in a pan, and covered to protect it from the rain. Very little success has 
resulted from treating oak acorns ; the general policy is to kill the rodents 
rather than to prepare the seed so that it will not be eaten. Stones 
are often placed between the transplant lines to hold the moisture in the 

7 See Boppe, pp. 349-392. 

^ From notes supplied by the director of the school. 

^ A species like silver fir would be sown in the fall. 



CULTIVATION AND SPACING 125 

soil and prevent throwing. As a general rule, untransplanted stock is 
recommended in big planting operations, 2 to 3 year-old conifer seed- 
lings being preferred. Transplanted stock, on the other hand, is used 
to complete natural regeneration. Here the cost is less important be- 
cause only a small percentage of the total area need be planted and 
better success is secured, since it is less likely to be crowded out. The 
plants are never pulled and are not watered before shipment because 
of the danger of heating while en route. Baskets or open boxes are 
generally used for shipping. 

It should be borne in mind that large nurseries, such as the one just 
described, are no longer numerous, many of them having been abandoned 
in favor of small local nurseries near the planting site. Much more 
typical is the small local nursery at Royat in the Central Plateau, which 
is situated in a narrow valley on a 6 per cent west slope. The main 
product here is 3-year-old spruce fir or Scotch pine seedhngs. There 
is no transplanting, since it is considered too expensive. The fir is sown 
under lath frames 6.5 feet wide and placed 2.5 feet above the soil and 
the pine is sown in drills spaced 3 to 4 inches apart. Shade frames, 10 
to 12 inches above the ground, are used for the Scotch pine also during 
the heat of the first year. 

PLANTING 

Cultivation and Spacing. — In planting, Jolyet says " cultivation 
should usually be considered indispensable — always advantageous." 
The great aim of planting is the use of the most economical local means 
to get the roots in touch with the humus and the soil. Complete culti- 
vation is, of course, never necessary and would only increase the danger 
of erosion. Planting trees in horizontal strips is often advantageous in 
dry regions, but the general preference of the forester should be for 
holes or spots. As a rule, the French favor much wider spacing in 
plantations than do the Germans. Bartet even suggests spacing spruce 
6.5 feet apart owing to its superficial root system and in order to give 
the crown a chance for development. In Germany the average distance 
for spacing spruce is usually 4 feet and sometimes closer. The French 
rule is never less than 3.3 feet and never more than 10 feet. Intolerant 
species like maritime pine can be spaced wider apart than a tolerant 
species such as fir; and as a general rule, rapidly growing species can be 
spaced wider than species that are slow growing during the seedling 
and sapling stages. Ordinarily the spacing is 5 to 6.5 feet. It is cer- 
tainly apparent, without going into further detail, that the French 
system is more in accordance with American practice, namely, wide 
spacing and comparatively few trees per acre as contrasted with the 
close spacing in Germany. 



126 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

Age of Plants. — "In every conifer plantation aimed at restocking 
mountain slopes you should follow the principle of having the plants 
as young as possible." 

The ages indicated below vary according to the nature of the species, 
the altitude of the nursery, and according to whether the plants are 
transplanted or not: Cypress, 2 to 3 years; fir, 3 to 4; spruce, 3 to 4; 
larch, 2 to 4; cedar, 2 to 3; Scotch pine, mountain pine, Corsican pine, . 
Austrian pine, and Cevennes pine, 2 years (occasionally 3) ; aleppo pine, 
preferably 1 year (sometimes 2) ; cembric pine 3 to 5 ; ash, 2 to 6 ; beech, 
1 to 5; chestnut, 1 to 4; sessile oak, 1 to 4; other broadleaves, 2 to 6. 
Older plants, 4 to 5 years old, are used in certain limestone soils where 
the ground is badly heaved by the frost, on very steep slopes where 
snowslides are feared and where the plants may be torn out if they 
are not deep-rooted, and also on unstable shallow ground where there 
is danger that the young plants may be covered with debris already 
eroded. The natural larch stock secured from neighboring stands is 
usually ball-planted at 5 to 8 years of age. 

At Barcelonette (Basses-Alpes) the local rule still holds that the 
younger the plants the better the success. Austrian pine is ordinarily 
used at 2 to 3 years of age with 4 to 5 year plants on exceptionally diffi- 
cult and steep talus. Larch and mountain pine are used at 2 years of 
age and cembric pine at 3 to 5 years, the stock rarely being transplanted. 
(See also p. 165.) 

Time to Plant. — It has been found best to plant coniferous trees in 
the spring because the soil is then fresh and the plants will have one 
whole growing season for development before the severe autumn weather. 
If solidly rooted in the soil they can resist to better advantage the frost, 
erosion, sliding snow, and drought, as well as the wash of heavy rains. 
The autumn, however, is sometimes used for planting conifers at high 
altitudes because of the shortness of the working season. 

The deciduous species, which are habitually planted at lower altitudes, 
may be set out in the spring before the beginning of vegetation but 
ordinarily this is not done until the autumn. Soil and climate have 
weight in deciding upon the proper season. For example, in the Ardeche 
the autumn plantations alone give satisfactory results on limestone soils 
situated at low altitudes. Planting is preferably done also in the autumn 
in the Aude since frosts are rare at this season and because in the spring 
there are often prolonged rains which may completely wash out the soil 
from around the plants. Dinner stated that in the Maritime Alps, in 
the zone where it does not freeze hard in winter, he can plant in the 
fall, but higher up in the mountains he must plant entirely in the 
spring. 

At Marseilles in the forest of La Gardiole the best time for planting on 



FRENCH PLANTING TECHNIQUE 127 

this limestone soil is in November, December, and January so as to 
benefit from the late autmnn rain. 

At Barcelonette autumn planting, especially when done in September 
or in October, gives very good results in the high altitudes. 

Plantations in Holes (or Spots). — While to have a complete stand 
from the start 4,000 spots to the acre would be required, this number is 
largely reduced to an extent varying with the region and on the species 
in order to cut down the cost of forestation and thinning. Dense planta- 
tions are reserved for land which presents very difficult conditions on 
account of the soil or of the climate. The depth and length of the spots 
is ordinarily 16 to 12 inches, the size being reduced where the plants 
may be badly damaged by the frost or where the slope is very steep. 
On difficult slopes the conifers are often planted by the French ^^ in 
clumps of two to three seedlings; the larch is usually planted single. 
With transplanted stock the single plants are used in the case of the 
broad leaves, except that beech is sometimes planted in pairs. Protec- 
tion is frequently afforded by overturned sod or by stones. According 
to Dinner, he is obliged by the Paris office to do some sowing, but would 
otherwise do all his reforestation by planting. The main feature of his 
planting technique is the size of the holes. The Paris authorities impose 
a size of 10 inches square, but Dinner uses 16-inch "spots" and even 
larger if the ground is bad. He feels that the secret of success is in 
large spots which hold the moisture, whereas small spots would be dried 
out. On large areas he plants strips of broadleaved trees as future fire 
belts. Where there are 1,600 to 2,000 plants per acre the whole expense 
is $10 to $12 per acre with labor at 70 to 80 cents a day. The average 
loss through his inspection is 25 per cent, some seasons being almost 
nothing, but other years 60 to 70 per cent. At Barcelonette the plant- 
ing in spots or in bunches (that is, three or four plants to the spot) is 
favored. They count 2,000 spots per acre and three plants per cluster. 
This cost (in 1912) $3.86 to $5.79 per acre without the cost of the stock. 

French Planting Technique. — The usual implements employed are 
the pick, mattock, and shovel. When digging a hole the grass is thrown 
to the right, the fine soil to the left, and the poor bottom soil in front. 
When the tree is planted the fine soil is placed immediately around the 
roots and the poorer bottom soil above. In this way the humus is left 
where it is most needed to enrich the root system. The French favor 
the use of stones to protect the planting spot from washing and to pro- 
tect the surface from drying out ; often in extensive planting operations, 
furrows are plowed to assist the hand work. 

1" See French Forests and Forestry, already cited, especially pp. 41-43, 77-87. This 
planting of more than one seedling in a spot is distinctly French and would rarely be 
advisable in the United States. 



128 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

Care is, of coiirso, taken to keep the rootlets fresh and moist during 
the operation, a fundamental of successful planting. The usual method 
of planting is as follows: A few handsful of fine soil are placed next to 
the roots while the root collar is held close to the ground. With the 
right liand the planter fills in the loose soil after arranging the roots 
so as to lie naturally. The ground is pressed lightly with the hands 
after the soil is filled in. Soil is usually piled an inch above the root 
collar to allow for natural sinking. But the French are very careful 
not to plant too deep since this checks the roots, encourages false roots, 
and induces rot. On very dry ground, or sand, the planting is cheaper 
than on very compact moist soils where they rarely plant below the 
root collar. In very dry regions where rocks are not available, a mound 
4 to 12 inches high is often built up on the south side of the plant for 
protective purposes. 

For really difficult planting the French favor ])all planting with the 
ball of earth 3 to 4 inches in diameter. This conserves the moisture, 
but of course costs much more. It is always necessary that the ball of 
earth adhere to the surrounding soil, since if this contact is not made 
the soil will dry out and the beneficial results of ball planting be lost. De- 
montzey adopted a so-called bush or clump method of planting which is 
sometimes used in Algeria, in which three or four plants are placed 
together. This was alleged to be cheaper and surer. Apparently French 
foresters argued that there was no danger of too many plants and that 
there would always he one most vigorous plant that would survive in 
the competition for existence. This method is only used in the moun- 
tains. The disadvantage is that, if there are contagious diseases, all 
plants will be affected and succumb. 

In water-logged soil the French prefer ridge planting rather than 
mound planting. They call a stand planted by the mound method, 
where it is necessary to pile up 8 or 4 cubic yards of earth per thousand 
plants, a "plantation-de-luxe." The plowed ridges ordinarily used 
are much cheaper, since the work can be done on a large scale. Another 
special method used by the French is the so-called basket method. 

"The method consists in excavating a hole (Hke a cone upside down) 2 to 3 feet 
wide at the top and 10 to 14 inches in depth; all around the sides of this hole a series 
of short or average-sized stems (generally hroadloaf) are jjlaced 4 to (i inches ai)art and 
placed so that the st(>ms form th(> skeleton of a basket. Then the whole is filled with 
loose soil, mixed with humus, if tiiat is possible." 

This results in a little green island of trees and is especially useful 
for planting in torrent beds or on thin soil. 

Occasionally it has l)een found possible to plant profitably on un- 
prepared soil by simply making a hole in the earth with a spade or 
stick, inserting the plant, and pressing down the soil with the foot. 



COVER AND PROTECTION 129 

Of course this is an exceedingly cheap method. It has, however, the 
disadvantage of favoring a high percentage of loss. It is only desirable 
on exceedingly rich or fertile soil where the spade, dibble, or grub hoe 
can be used to advantage. With very compact clay the method is 
rarely successful, since the roots will not secure sufficient aeration. 

In the forest of La Gardiole, on exceptionally difficult ground, the seed- 
lings are raised in pots and set out directly without disturbing the root 
system. This system is very expensive. When 2-year-old aleppo pines 
are planted in pots the stock cost, prior to 1912, approximately $4.82 
per thousand trees plus transport; to-day it would be at least $10 to 
$12. In the drier localities where sowing by the seed-spot method had 
been employed, the few surviving seedhngs were under the shade of 
the stone which anchored the branches or under the shade of the stumps 
or the larger branches. Apparently even better results would have been 
secured if heavier protective cover had been used. The object of the 
reforestation project of La Gardiole was to serve as an example to the 
surrounding population and if possible to temper the hot climate of 
Marseilles. 

Cover and Protection. — On slopes or soils that are so unstable that 
forest trees cannot be planted at once it is first necessary to anchor the 
soil with grass or shrubs. The best shrubs to use are those of rapid 
growth, since they must be able to take possession of the soil and fight 
successfully against the effects of erosion. Usually the seed of French 
grass and rye-grass pure or in mixture is used. The sowing is done in 
the spring from the top down in order that the lower lines of sowing 
will not be covered with debris from the higher elevations. Since the 
seed is so small it is covered with an extremely thin layer of soil. Strips 
of sod are planted in order to stop the erosion of the surface soil and 
in order to make possible the growth of trees. These strips or benches 
of sod are planted horizontally on the slope. In very easily eroded soil, 
such as the glacial muds, it is often necessary to protect the brush or sod 
by fascines in horizontal strips. No general rule can be laid down as 
to when to apply sod and when to use brush, but it is true that shrubs 
resist erosion better and are often preferable to sod in maintaining 
certain kinds of unstable ground. The shrubs are sown or planted, 
layered, or suckered. The hazel may be sown or planted, while the 
cherry and the aldfer are planted. The willows and the poplars are 
usually layered but the aspen and the willow may be reproduced from 
slips. 

It is of interest to note that the seeding of some of these shrubs often 
takes place naturally after the bed of a stream has been fixed by means 
of correction works. It often happens, however, that the slopes are 
too steep to be stabilized by any vegetation. In such cases it is neces- 



130 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 



sary to wait until the talus can be terraced when it assumes a suffi- 
ciently gentle slope to permit this work. The natural talus frequently 
corresponds to a slope of 67 per cent while, with the use of terraces, 
the ground can be stabilized up to a 100 per cent slope. (See Chapter 
VII.) 

Species and Methods to Use. — Jolyet ^^ advocates the planting of 
coniferous stands since they furnish a larger percentage of timber. 
While he recognizes the force of the argument in favor of mixed forests 
he favors a coniferous stand with some broadleaves to assist in the 
preservation of soil conditions and to make natural regeneration more 
convenient. He recommends the introduction of a very few species of 
exotics. As for conifers he recommends the planting of spruce and 
Scotch pine, and where there is a choice as to which of these to plant 
he prefers Norway spruce on account of its rapid growth and high yield. 
If for some reason or other so-called exotics have to be introduced Jolyet 
especially favors the Japanese larch and the Douglas fir. He cites an 
ideal plantation (made at Nancy by Cuif) spaced 5 by 5 feet, which 
contained the following species in the ratio indicated: As major species, 
spruce 44 per cent; Scotch pine, 31 per cent. As secondary species, 
Japanese larch, 6 per cent; Douglas fir, 13 per cent; ''concolor" fir, 
3 per cent; beech and sycamore (each one-half), 3 per cent. Total, 
100 per cent. 

Dinner, head of the " Reboisement " at Nice (which includes the 
drier portions of the Southern Alps), uses aleppo pine on limestone soil 
and maritime pine on sandy soil (only) up to 2,100 feet; for altitudes 
of 2,100 to 4,500 feet he has found Austrian pine (see p. 167) better 
than Scotch pine, his 20 years of experience having shown that it grows 
more rapidly and has fewer enemies; above 4,500 feet he prefers larch. 

For various soil conditions Jolyet recommends the following species 
and methods: 



TABLE 11.— FORESTATION METHODS FOR TYPICAL SOIL CONDITIONS 

IN FRANCE" 



Objective 



Product 



Species recommended 



Methods 



(1) Areable land 



For profit 



Saw timber 



Scotch pine 



April-May. Broadcast 7 pounds per 
acre with oats. Cultivate (plow) in 
autumn, again in spring. Harrow, 
sow, and harrow in 



° Compiled and digested from Jolyet, pp. 468-520. 
" Quelles essences faut-il planter? Par Jolyet. Besangon, 1911, pp. 1-15. 



SPECIES AND METHODS TO USE 



131 



Objective 



Product 



Species recommended 



Methods 







(2) Light areable land 




Permanent har- 


Saw timber 


Scotch pine often mixture with 


Broadcast 


dy forest with 




broadleaf, desirable 




natural regen- 








eration 









(3) Heavy areable land 



Permanent forest 



Saw timber 



Oak in deep soil 



Sow May 1 to 31 in plowed furrows, 2 to 
3 inches deep and 5 feet apart, 480 
pounds of acorns per acre 



(4) Brush and pasture land 



Permanent forest 



Saw timber 



Scotch pine 



Sow as in (2) or as above in strips 
if ground cannot be plowed; strips 
should be east and west. It brush, 
short strips 12 inches wide; if light, 
brush double width. Strips 5 to 8 feet 
apart. Preferable to cultivate in 
autumn and in spring, sow April 15 to 
May 15, 4j pounds per acre. If desir- 
able to economize sow on portions of 
strips. On rough ground use seed 
spots 14 inches square, 6| feet apart. 
Increase size if brush is thick and tall. 
Occasionally sowing 7 pounds per acre 
broadcast on heather has succeeded if 
sheep are grazed afterwards to work 
the seeds into the ground. Maritime 
pine, if in Laurentum (see p. 27) zone, 
can (a) broadcast 11 pounds per acre, 
(6) sow strips 7 pounds per acre, (c) 
seed spot 3 pounds per acre 



(5) Barren land (dry and hilly) 



Reclamation and 
soil cover 



Of secondary 
importance 



Few spruce or larch or Scotch 
pine, best sites with Aus- 
trian pine as major species. 
Sometimes Scotch pine can 
be used more freely. Use 
beech, maple, linden, horn- 
beam, willow, alder, etc. In 
mixture according to condi- 
tions. 



Plant 5 by 5 feet. Take advantage of 
favorable pockets of soil. Use grub 
hoe and work soil well 3 to 8 weeks or a 
season ahead of planting. Plant in 
autumn preferably. Must be finished 
before April 1. Holes should be at 
least 10 inches square. Fill in with 
humus. Dirt put under sod, then sod, 
and lastly the dirt from bottom of 
holes. Cover with flat stones. Plant 
on still day 



* For example, see Jolyet, pp. 467-468 

(6) Bogs and swamp land 



Reclamation and 

drainage 



Of secondary 
importance 



Alder, birch (white pine), 
mountain pine, Murray pine 
(Scotch pine where layer of 
alios) 



Mound planting (or perhaps plow 2 fur- 
rows and plant on upturned ridges of 
earth) 



132 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 



Objective 


Product 1 Species recommended 


Methods 


(7) Small scale {lots of less than 2} acres) 


Woodlots 


Fuel 


Hornbeam, acacia (or alder 
on fresh soil) 


Broadcast with easy natural 
regeneration 



Chief Dangers. — The dangers to sown or planted seed arise mainly 
from drought, mammals, insects, and birds. For rabbits, a source of 
much damage in France, it is considered necessary to fence with wire 
mesh usually 3 feet high, the bamer leaning away from area protected, 
and sunk 8 to 12 inches under the ground. Mice and other small rodents 
are killed with poisoned oats or barley. For birds poison is used, or 
in the case of seed spots, a cover of wire mesh. To avoid damage from 
drought, deep, large, well-prepared holes are used in planting, and the 
young trees protected with flat stones; these holes or spots must often 
be protected under especially unfavorable conditions by a layer of brush. 

FIELD SOWING 

Prepared and Unprepared Soil. — When sowing is attempted soil 
preparation is usually necessary to give the young seedlings a start 
against weeds and grass. The previous vegetation must often be re- 
moved and the soil cultivated. This cultivation enables the soil to 
absorb water, diminishes evaporation, and permits the rapid develop- 
ment of the root system and relieves the young plants of competition 
with weeds for water. Soil preparation, on the other hand, increases 
the danger of the young plants being frozen or thrown, and in light soils, 
especially on slopes, may result in erosion. Seed may be broadcasted, 
as in ordinary agricultural practice, after the surface of the ground 
is cleared. For broadcast sowing, cheap seed is a necessity. 

Sowing in patches is merely localized broadcast sowing. This method 
is a convenient means of supplementing partial failures in natural re- 
generation, and is especially useful in introducing more valuable species 
into a natural stand, which varies a great deal in quality, since it per- 
mits the choice of the best spots and the adaptation of the proper soil. 
Seed spots are considered economical, but there is always considerable 
danger from mammals and from weeds. Sowing in continuous or broken 
strips requires less seed than broadcasting, and there is less danger 
from the uncleared areas. The sown strips are 20 to 40 inches in width 
with 3 to 10 feet of uncultivated land between the strips. On level 
ground or gentle slopes, it is the custom to run the lines east and west, 
but always horizontally on slopes above 7 or 8 per cent. Where there 
is danger of water collecting, the lines must be broken, even on hori- 
zontal strips. There will then be 16 to 20 feet of sown strip separated 
by 5 to 10 feet of unsown strip. 



AMOUNT TO SOW 133 

Where the sowing is on unprepared soil the ground must be loose, 
the seed must be cheap, and the growth of the species sown rapid, so 
that it can protect itself against the weeds. The best example of suc- 
cessful broadcast sowing on unprepared soil is the sowing of maritime 
pine seed on the sand dunes of the Landes and Gascogne. Another 
well-known example is on the Central Plateau where Scotch pine has 
been successfully sown without any advance soil preparation. Occa- 
sionally, the sowing has been followed by sheep grazing, in order that 
the sheep may eat out the heather and let the seeds get to the soil. 
The hoofs of the sheep cover the seed sufficiently, but failures following 
this method are even more frequent than successes. According to my 
original notes, 

"At Cleremont-Ferrand in the Central Plateau Scotch pine region one of my 
friends mentioned a former method used for the cheap artificial stocking of Scotch 
pine by broadcast sowing. The seed was sown plentifully in the fall and during the 
winter rains sheep were allowed to trample the seed into the sod. The results I saw 
were very good, but I found no one who had practiced it himself." 

Sowing without soil preparation outside the Landes is best justified 
on rocky soil in the mountains, at the foot of cliffs — in other words, 
where cultivation is impossible. If the soil is fresh and there is no fear 
of mice and grass, broadcast sowing is often successful after snowfall 
(see p. 136) or on the bare soil. One advantage is that it can be done 
when other work is impossible. When sowing on rocky ground the 
seed should be thrown up hill from below so that it will get some pro- 
tection under the rocks. Where there is danger of erosion, broad- 
casting should not be attempted. 

There are a number of short-cut sowing methods which find favor in 
France and which are well known in the United States, such as hoeing 
the soil and covering the seed; dibbling to complete regeneration; at 
high altitudes, where the ground is fresh and where regular cultivation 
is impossible or difficult, the dibbhng or cane method of sowing (see 
p. 167) may be advisable. 

On the whole, these special broadcasting or planting methods are 
justified only where made necessary by peculiar conditions and rarely 
are as successful as really thorough soil preparation. 

Amount to Sow. — The amount of seed to use naturally varies with 
the soil, slope, and local climate, and also, of course, with the size of 
the seed, quality, method, and season of planting. The amount sown 
must be increased if there are droughts, frost, or mammals to allow for 
prospective losses. 

The sowing figures used by the French foresters are shown in the 
following table (after Boppe) : 



134 



ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 



P5 
O 

< 

O 
CO 

O 

H 

Q 

H 

fa 

o 

I— I 
H 

< 









J .(^ t^tC"?v-i''-< "—I lO iC ■* »0 iC lO 



.CO-* 
* iM CO 



^ei4H4H' 



P9 -Q 



;J.'-^< 



GOiC(N'*(M OOO _ Opp 

1-1 00 O ■* lO -^ "* 00 C5 _ C<1 !> •> 

I I I I 1001 Licocoit^ooiosooi 11 

OOOCOCO<>1 ioiOOC<)i— il>- OOOcD 

t-H (M ^O l>- to 00 CO lO 1—1 CO o 

1-ICO IM 



03 Tfi O rn C» 00 1^ (M (N <M (M (M (M ^ _J 

OOOiC<)i-Hi-i'*'Y'^^'^'~^'~"^*^'^'^'-^'^TT 

O'^cDcJcJoco'^i^oooodddodoT^ 
c<» CO CO 



gi §2.2 



faC 

<u 

tc to 03 ,?2 

>-i >i >5 ^ 

o3 C3 (^ taT 

lO lO lO ' — I 
"^ "^ T^ TS T3 O 

CO »0 -'^ O CO O CD CD •* lO CO CO '3 '3 '3 '3'3 q3 "* ^ £ 

J:4^0cJ:4^4<4^4hcJ3cJ:c!5cJ: acy^aaO (^chO 



3 



Cli ^ 



fa 



53-5 

2.S Ox; ^ 



OJ 



a; 






:3 03 ^ - 

tH cj ,C (U .- kj i_, 

Q^ >j cc a; o3 — . y 






6 3^ -Si 5 0.3.3 



<iieqWOOMa3<:mH:iWaigO<5S<10<«1fai-^ 



SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 135 



Season for Sowing. — The natural time to sow is when nature sows, 
but this is often impossible owing to the price of labor and the difficulty 
of seed collection. The best season for sowing seeds ripening toward 
the end of summer is the autumn or winter. This has the additional 
advantage that the seeds germinate early in the spring and get the 
start of the weeds. The spring gives the best results when species ger- 
minate quickly and when there is danger from rodents. 

The directions for sowing which are standard in France have been 
summarized in the following table. It covers the more important species 
only: 

TABLE 13.— SEASON AND METHOD OF SOWING CHIEF SPECIES 



Species 


Method 


Season 


Oak 


Sowing best on account of taproot; deep soil, 
can plow 1.6 to 2.4 inches deep; dibbling 
good. 


Spring. 


Beech 


Like oak. 




Hornbeam 


Broadcast under partial cover best; 0.4 to 
0.8 inches. 


Autumn. 


Spruce 


Only need partial cover at low elevations; 
cleared soil by strips or seed spots, rake 


Spring. 






into soil; all methods applicable; strips 






and seed spots especiallv good. 




Scotch pine 


Best for direct seeding; no need of cover; if 
seed is expensive planting is better. 


11 


Austrian pine. . . . 


Better than Scotch pine for limestone soil; 
same method. 


li 


Maritime pine. . . 


Direct seeding. 




Aleppo pine 


Bears heat and drought; bare ground. 




Larch 


Soak seed in water 15 to 20 days before 
sowing; like spruce; needs moist soil but 


Autumn or spring. 






good for rocky ground. 





Summary of Sowing Methods as Applied to Species and Regions. — 

In the Alps at high altitudes the sowing of larch, mountain pine, and 
cembric pine is usually done with seed spots or furrows of variable size. 
In the seed spots three to four seeds of cembric pine are planted, and 
eight to ten of larch or of mountain pine. They are then covered by 
hand. In the furrows one or two seeds per running 0.4 inch of soil are 
sown. In the case of the larch it is especially necessary to sow strictly 
according to the germinative per cent, which often varies from 40 to 70. 
The amount of soil needed for covering depends on the size of the seed. 
Larch and mountain pine are covered with 0.4 inch of soil, while cembric 
pine seeds are covered with 0.8 inch. Seed bought in the autumn is 
sown the following spring. The spring sowing, while securing the benefit 
of the heat and humidity favorable for germination, does not always 
resist the summer drought. Autumn sowing often gives the best results 
because the seed can germinate early in the spring, thus getting a start 



136 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

over the seed sown later. Broadcast sowing in the spring on snow where 
the mineral soil is bared often succeeds. According to my original notes: 

"Another special method of sowing was illustrated by a splendid larch stand near 
Barcelonette. Here European larch was sown broadcast before or during a snow 
storm. The moisture conditions here, however, are much better than in many parts 
of the western United States where we have tried this method without success. Per- 
haps one reason we have failed is that the French soak the seed in water for about a week 
{larch three iveeks) before sowing so that it will germinate. We might try this out on a 
small scale. I am still convinced that we should not try to sow on our most difficult 
ground; that for the very worst soil we must use spots or a substitute (such as ball 
planting), but that the cost will be prohibitive for some years to come." 

In the Ventoux sessile and holm oak are sown. Eight hundred to 
1,600 seed spots each, 12 inches square and 12 to 16 inches deep, are 
sown per acre with 60 to 120 quarts of acorns. Shrubs are placed as a 
shelter over the seed spots and as a further protection stones are heaped 
up to the south side. In each seed spot the fifteen to twenty acorns are 
covered with 0.8 to 1.1 inches of soil; this depth is varied. The sowing 
is generally during November and December after the collection of the 
acorns and before the frost, or, if it is not done at this time, in February 
and March. In the Basses-Alpes seed spots are used for sessile and holm 
oak and aleppo pine, species of a temperate climate. These seed spots 
are 10 to 14 inches deep and in each spot are placed five to six acorns or 
eight to ten pine seeds. The sowing is generally in the autumn. In the 
Maritime Alpes aleppo pine and maritime pine are sown in seed spots in 
the spring; 2,400 seed spots per acre are prepared 16 inches square and 
12 to 18 inches in depth. The same method is used for sowing chest- 
nut and oak. In the Cevennes and Central Plateau strip sowing is 
sometimes employed. 

In the Var (near Marseilles) the conditions are unfavorable to tree 
growth. There are rains from September 15 to December 15, and from 
February 15 to April 15. The great drought occurs in June and it is 
somewhat dry during the short winter season. During a hot summer 
day the temperature rises to 37° C. (98.6° F.), and during the night it 
rarely falls below 25° C. (77° F.). The soil is limestone and once bared 
of tree growth is difficult to restock. Under these conditions there is 
but one method of artificial restocking with aleppo pine. The sowing 
is done in large seed spots, 3.3 feet long by 1.6 feet in width and 10 to 
16 inches in depth. The whole seed spot is sown thickly, so that often 
as many as ten plants germinate in one spot, but because of drought 
few survive after a year or so. Immediately after sowing the surface of 
the seed spots is covered with brush held in place by rocks. This brush 
protects against rodents, heat, and wind. The top of the seed spot is 
usually left 0.8 to 1.2 inches below the rest of the ground in order to 
collect moisture. 



SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 137 

In the Puy-de-Dome ^^ seed spots are often used, protected by bunches 
of brush or scattered in the coppice stands which are being improved. 
In the first case oak or pine is sown pure or in mixture; in the second, 
oak is sown with beech. 

In the Haute-Loire stands of spruce, Scotch pine, mountain pine, and 
cembric pine have been obtained by means of broadcasting or by seed 
spots. The Scotch pine is usually broadcasted and the other species 
sown in seed spots 3.3 to 6.6 feet apart. These species do not give as 
good results as would the fir if there were the necessary protection 
available. In open beech stands Scotch pine or mountain pine is often 
sown in strips 14 inches in depth and 16 inches wide, the length depend- 
ing on the size of the opening. Sometimes these strips are cut into seed 
spots 16 inches square. In this region sowing is done in the spring or 
even later, toward the middle of May. The amount of seed used is about 
9 pounds per acre. It is sown generously and covered lightly with loose 
soil. After the sowing seed spots are covered with branches which are 
left until the beginning of the autumn. The seed spots are visited in 
the following spring or autumn in order to free the young plants of 
leaves or dead needles which cover them. 

In the Lozere (Central), Aveyron, and the Correze broadcast sowing 
of Scotch pine generally succeeds on sandy soil partially covered with 
short heather, but poor results are certain on land occupied by genista 
and tree heather. Success is best assured by opening up seed spots only 
2 inches square in the midst of the heather in order to avoid heaving 
by the frost. Near Nimes maritime pine has been successfuly repro- 
duced by broadcasting 7 pounds per acre on heather in the autumn just 
before the winter rains. The heather is then cut and for protection the 
litter left as it lies. Sowing of this kind is done very late in the spring 
just before hot weather. In the department of the Lozere there is also 
sowing of oak and chestnut. The slopes are generally not excessive 
and the seed spots are opened up in the spring and in the autumn are 
sown with acorns and chestnuts, despite the damage usually done by 
rodents; 3.4 bushels of acorns or chestnuts are used per acre for 1,000 
seed spots. 

In the Gard and Herault, Scotch pine, Corsican pine, and maritime 
pine are sown in seed spots in the spring; chestnuts and acorns in the 
fall. The seed spots are 12 to 16 inches square and 6 inches deep. It 
takes 6 pounds of conifer seed or 3.4 bushels of acorns or chestnuts per 

12 Digested from Demontzey. Elers Koch, of District 1, U. S. Forest Service, once 
wrote me: "It makes me weep to think of all the good money used in feeding pine seed 
to the chipmunks. ... If there is going to be any money spent on the Lolo Forest for 
reforestation, it is going to be for good strong nursery stock, and we will have something 
to show for it." 



138 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION 

acre. In the Aude the sowing is done with seed spots in the autumn, 
the spring being generally too rainy and day laborers too difficult to 
secure. Sixteen hundred to 2,000 seed spots, 12 to 16 inches square and 
12 inches deep, are used per acre. This takes 60 to 80 quarts of acorns 
or 120 quarts of chestnuts. The conifer seed, such as Scotch pine, 
Austrian pine, or aleppo pine, is sown at the rate of 2.2 pounds per 1,000 
seed spots. Fir seed is also sown in the autumn in seed spots 4 to 5 inches 
square and 3 inches deep, 800 to the acre where there are open beech 
or pine stands. 

In the Pyrenees, in the eastern part, sowing is used only for sessile 
and holm oak and in order to introduce fir under the shelter of other 
species. The seed spots, about 1,000 per acre, having the same size 
as those in the Aude, are sown with fifteen to twenty acorns each. The 
young seedlings obtained are cultivated. The stones which may cover 
them are removed and every 2 or 3 years trees or brush which suppress 
them are removed until they reach the age of 8 to 10 years, when the 
young stands are cut back, after which they grow very rapidly. The 
cost of sowing depends on the region, on the method, and on the kind 
of seed. As an average the cost of day labor per acre for broadcast 
sowing was 46 cents, $1.73 for sowing with a very light soil cover at high 
altitudes, and $2.31 to $4.62 for sowing by seed spots. To this expense 
must be added the cost of the seed, 41 cents to $1.07 per bushel for 
acorns or chestnuts and 44 cents to 88 cents per pound for conifer seed. 
To-day all these prices are double or triple — or even more. 

According to one authority ^^ maritime pine will not grow if the soil 
is more than 4 per cent lime, but ordinarily the reproduction is easy on 
bare soil, since the seed is both winged and abundant. With 75 per cent 
germination and broadcast sowing it takes about 10.6 pounds of seed 
per acre, with strip sowing 7 pounds, and with seed spots 4.4 pounds, 
but these figures may be doubled or tripled under unfavorable conditions. 
Where sowing fails it is often customary to fill in by planting, which 
can be successfully done if the seedlings planted are 1 to 2 or more 
years old. 

On the Coml)re dune the sowing was 9 pounds per acre of maritime 
pine, 8 of "genista," and 3.5 kilograms of ''gourbet." (See p. 182 for 
additional data on sowing sand dunes. )i'^ 

" La Foret, par L. Boppe, pp. 47, 205, 206, 332-34L 

1^ In 1912 a member of the U. S. Forest Service raised the following questions regard- 
ing the French forestation practice: 

1. Question. — Is there any way to treat refractory seed to make it come up the first 
season? Ansiver.- — -Seep. 119. 

2. Q. — What methods and tools do they use in nursery transplanting? A. — 
Seedling stock is usually preferred; transplanting methods have not been systematized 
as in Germany. See pp. 123, 124. 



SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 139 

3. Q. — ^ What fertilizer do they use in seed beds? How much? A. — ^ Ordinary 
commercial fertilizers in quantities determined by local soil conditions. See p. 124. 

4. Q. — What sort of packages are used for shipping nursery stock? Is stock 
puddled? A. — See p. 125. 

5. Q. — What ages of nursery stock are chiefly used? A. — - See p. 126. 

6. Q. — What spacing is generally adopted in planting? If we assume that we 
cannot thin are we justified in spacing widely? A. — See p. 125. The French justify 
wide spacing even with intensive thinnings. 

7. Q. — -Just what tools and methods are used for field planting? A. — See pp. 
127, 128. 

8. Q. — Is pine seed generally sowed broadcast or in drills in the seed beds, and 
why? A. — • See p. 124. Cultivation is easier and it takes less seed. 

9. Q. — Do they use much seedling stock or transplants in conifers? A. — Seed- 
ling stock is very much preferred because it is cheaper. 

10. Q. — What spacing and arrangement of transplant rows is adopted? Do they 
irrigate transplants? A. — See pp. 123, 124. 

Since the officer who raised these questions had the supervision of a very large and 
important nursery it is desired to emphasize their importance by special page references. 



CHAPTER VII 
CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

French Policy and Summary of Reforestation (p. 140). Introduction, His- 
torical Summary of Legislation, Law of 1882, Statistics of Reforestation. 

The Damage (p. 147). Erosion and Precipitation, Rocks and Soils EasUy Eroded, 
Definition of a Torrent, Formation of Torrent Gorges, Causes of Torrents in Mountain 
Forests, Damage Caused by Torrents. 

Corrective Measures (p. 153). Policy and Summary, Technique of Dams, 
Walls and Protection Against Avalanches, Rock Drains, Paving Channels, Tunnels and 
Aqueducts, Wattle Work (Garnissage), Forestation, with examples. 

Typical, Reforestation Areas (p. 168). Regions. 

FRENCH POLICY AND SUMMARY OF REFORESTATION 

Introduction. — According to Daubree, the Minister of Agriculture: 

"The Waters and Forests agents charged with the application of the laws which affect 
to such a high degree the national safety and property will, in the performance of their 
duties, continue to use the most absolute devotion and will show, as in the past, that 
they are worthy servants of the repubhc." 

The Minister thus emphasized the responsibility and efficiency of the 
officers on reforestation work because he realized the direct bearing of 
forestation in the mountains of France on the future prosperity of the 
rich valleys many miles from the watersheds now being forested. 

Moreover Huff el remarked: "The case of the forest is special because 
the abuse can continue a long time before the consequences become 
evident." According to an official report :i 

"The opinion of the (local) population is profoundly modified; confidence has taken 
the place of enmity. Communes, of whom a large mmiber were formerly refractory, 
struck with the advantages of reforestation, assured, moreover, by the moderation and 
by the spirit of broad conciliation of the Forest Service, ask for the execution of work 
(in this locality) at home. This is an omen of happy augury which cannot but encour- 
age the administration to persevere in the way outlined in order to regenerate the moun- 
tains and assure the safety of the rich valleys." 

The necessity of forested mountains has always been recognized, 
states an official report. Bernard Palissy (1510-1590) advocated the 
protection of forests; he paved the way for Surell, Cezanne, Gras, Breton, 

^The material on reforestation is taken mainly from "Restauration et Conserva- 
tion des Terrains en Montagne," Volumes I and III, 1911, and from Demontzey's 
. treatise on "Reboisement." 

140 



INTRODUCTION 141 

Mathieu, Costa de Bastelica, and, finally, Demontzey, whose reforesta- 
tion work for France will never be forgotten. 

There is always greater rainfall in the mountains than in the plains; - 
this favors erosion on the one hand, but on the other is more favorable 
to tree growth. This greater rainfall is due to the well-known effect of 
the colder air on the moisture-laden atmosphere, as it is forced to rise 
on meeting a mountain range. But, when an altitude of about 6,500 
feet is reached, the rainfall begins to decrease again, and only scattered 
trees or groups of trees are found. The distribution of this rainfall has 
an important bearing on the problem of reforestation. Up to 45° north 
latitude the rain is evenly distributed, whereas in the south there is 
httle moisture in summer, the rainfall being evenly distributed between 
winter, spring, and autumn. But in the Alps the climate seems to have 
become drier, a fact due, as some authors say, " to the intervention of 
man" though others say it is because the air has really become drier 
through climatic changes. Possibly these two views can be reconciled. 
The Waters and Forests Service says: 

"The direct intervention makes itself felt in mountain regions by felling trees along 
the forest limits, by unregulated grazing, and in certain places by too conservative 
forest fellings, as M. Thirion has indicated." 

In the mountains the forester must avoid leaving too many trees 
which would become overmature and at the next felling could not assure 
the perpetuation of the forest, because, if the stand has not been opened 
up while the trees are vigorous, it is certain that regeneration will not 
be complete; and if at the same time, as happens only too often, the 
forest has been opened to grazing, its ruin has been completed through 
having too few trees and trees of very mediocre quality. To this fact 
can be attributed the so-called rececUng of the forest growth in the high 
mountains. The stand not having been thinned when the trees were 
vigorous and healthy and grazing not having been forbidden, surfaces 
covered with old stands have not been able to reseed and the forest has 
been forced to disappear. M. Flahaut says: 

"In the lower mountains the passage of the plains climate to that of the heights is 
at first favorable to tree growth. As you rise, the pressure diminishes, the capacity 
of the air in water content is less, the rains are less frequent and less abundant, the 
heaviest winds increase the transpiration. These conditions are unfavorable to tree 
growth; when extreme they become fatal and completely prevent it; they are on the 
contrary favorable to herbaceous growth. Commencing at a certain altitude, which 
varies according to the geographic situation of the mountains, according to the cU- 
matic conditions, and even according to the topographic detail, the tree growth is 
then impossible." 

2 A brief summary of the campaign for forestation in its broader sense will help to 
an understanding of French sensibilities on the deforestation caused by the Great 
War, The statement by the French Government has been followed, for it gives the 
official viewpoint. 



142 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

Historical Summary of Legislation. — The first complete law on re- 
forestation dates from July 28, 1860.^ Up to that time methods of pre- 
venting flood damage had been tried out locally and sporadically, "most 
active when the catastrophies took place, weakening as the remembrance 
became effaced." 

The disastrous inundation of 1840 brought the problem to the front. 
In 1846 a proposed law "relative to the reforestation of the mountains 
and the conservation of forest soil" failed to pass the Chamber of Depu- 
ties. It was considered too drastic and provoked numerous objections 
because of economic questions, aiming especially at the grazing industry, 
which it aroused and antagonized. The bill was retired several months 
after it was presented, and for ten years a means of combatting inunda- 
tion was not considered further. A veritable cataclysm was necessary 
to bring up the question anew. In June, 1856, terrible floods ravaged 
the valleys of the Rhine, the Loire, the Rhone, Garonne, and the Seine, 
causing the loss of a great number of lives and doing damage amounting 
to more than $38,600,000 A law had been made in 1858 for the defense 
of towns against floods, but it was not until July 28, 1860, that the law 
on the reforestation of the mountains was passed. It was received with 
great disfavor by the grazing interests. "The reforestation," they said, 
"would do away with grazing; the forest would everywhere replace the 
pastures." Very vigorous objections were made, even to the extent of 
armed resistance. After the law of June 4, 1864, was passed, which 
authorized forestation, they learned very quickly that they were mis- 
taken. But the law of 1864 could not produce results. Grassing alone 
was not in itself sufficient to fix the sliding land where it was heavily 
eroded, land whose preservation affected the public interest. Besides 
the law of 1864, which included the same principles as the law of 1860, 
also contained some faults — "a collection of defects, any one of which 
was enough to kill it." The appropriations were too small for the work 
to be accomplished, but the main defect of the law was that the com- 
munal lands could be taken over without payment. The dispossession 
was only temporary, to be sure, but the conditions governing the return 
of the land were onerous and inequitable. "Since 1874 a devoted repre- 
sentative of the mountain population. Doctor Chevandier (of the Drome) 
was asking, if not the actual repeal of the legislation on reforestation, 
at least a very material modification of its provisions." 

In 1876 the Government proposed a law destined to replace the laws 
of 1860 and 1864. The Chamber passed it in 1877, but the Senate com- 
mittee opposed it with a counter project, which included the regulation 
of grazing. The Government withdrew the bill and sent to the Senate 

^ " Restauration et Conservation des Terrains en Montagne," Premiere Partie, 
pp. 1-4. 



LAW OF 1882 143 

in 1879 a new proposed law which, after having been modified in certain 
of its provisions, became the law of April 4, 1882, on the "Restoration 
and the Conservation of Mountain Lands." 

Law of 1882. — The law clearly recognized reforestation as obhgatory 
public work. Local commissions examine the plans proposed by the 
Forest Service and finally the law itself (Art. 2), and not merely a decree, 
determines the boundaries within which the work must be executed — 
that it only appUes to land actually damaged or in "actual and present 
danger." Within the established boundaries the work is carried out on 
lands belonging to the State in fee simple, which acquires them either 
privately or by expropriation (Art. 4). Moreover, the private owners, 
the communes, or the public institutions can retain the ownership of 
their land if they reach an understanding with the State before the 
expropriation and if they engage to carry out, within the time allotted, 
the work of restoration under the conditions prescribed by the Waters 
and Forests Service administration and under its control. The State 
subsidizes this reforestation work because of its value to the public and 
in order to repay the owners for their sacrifices. The law also prescribes 
the "reservation" (for a period not to exceed 10 years) of grazing grounds 
whose degradation is not far enough advanced to justify expropriation; 
and the boundaries are established by decree. The deficiencies (without 
doubt wilful in the provisions concerning grazing) have rendered the 
application of the law extremely difficult. In the United States most of 
the additions to western National Forests can be made only by Congress, 
but a Presidential decree is sufficient for eliminations. The same dis- 
tinction is made in France, where reforestation boundaries are made 
by law and grazing betterment boundaries by decree. 

"From the considerations which precede, it results that parhament, guided by the 
dominating thought of reconciling the public interest with that of the mountain in- 
habitants, did not wish that the boundaries be excessively restricted. The original 
organic law did not foresee the inclusion of vast areas in order to regulate water courses; 
it only gave the administration the power to take the hve sores, the lips eroded by tor- 
rents, where actual and present dangers presented themselves." 

The law of 1882 ordered the revision of the former boundaries, which 
were found much too extended. It follows that the law did not aim 
to create vast forests capable of yielding large revenue in the future, 
but rather the concentration, over limited area, of intensive work — 
dams, etc. — accompanied now and then by forestation. 

But if these lands yield nothing in money to the State, that does not 
mean that they are of no value to the local community, for they protect 
the villages, the roads, the railways, and the crops of rich valleys against 
torrents or avalanches. However, in certain regions, the problem has 
been considered somewhat differently. It has appeared (the damage 



144 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

being small) that it was possible with the approval of the public to 
make the boundaries larger and to really reforest on a considerable 
scale. In the lower part of the Cevennes, including the departments 
of the Gard and Herault, a region which has neither large lakes nor 
glaciers to regulate the water flow, it has seemed best to create considerable 
forested areas. 

"The great forest which one dreams of forming in this region will act like an enor- 
mous spring; it would tend to retard the collection and then the runoff of water, by 
decreasing the volume and by storing most of it in order to give out released water, 
flowing with checked or diminished speed, to the tremendous profit of business and 
agriculture. . . ." 

The era of hesitation and doubt in regard to the execution of the 
reforestation work has passed; mistakes very rarely occur. The cer- 
tainty of the methods used for combating floods at their starting points, 
which finally consists only in a series of small, inexpensive measures, is 
to-day recognized. The facts established the value of French methods. 
The soil is stabilized, the aridity and barrenness of the slopes disappear 
as the forest and grass growth is re-established, and "the torrent muddy 
and menacing changes into a brook harmless and even beneficent"; this 
is what has happened in many localities through the application of the 
law of April 4, 1882. Everywhere the efficiency of the reforestation work 
is apparent. 

"The provisions of the law of 1882 relative to grazing, despite the efforts of the 
administration, have not been able always to give the results expected, because of the 
opposition of the mountain people. Must one fall back on force? Nothing should 
oblige too rapid a march, or the attempt to do everything at once; everything, on the 
contrary, induces one to advance cautiously and j^rogressively in a way which the 
study of the past has shown full of difficulties and possible dangers. One feels that 
much more would be obtained by example rather than by force. Encourage, by hberal 
grants, the individual initiative; stimulate everywhere good will; make an appeal very 
skillfully to the intelligence and interest of communities and individuals." 

Such is the administration program adopted in order to bring the 
grazing population to a better comprehension of the value of the regula- 
tion of grazing land. 

The work of grazing l^etterment, which is in every way the necessary 
counterpart of reforestation, has been greatly extended, but there are 
still obstacles to be met. 

"Grazing betterment work has been criticised on the ground that it has only ephem- 
eral duration; the habits of the mountaineers are in poor keeping with the betterment 
of a common weal, and people have proposed different remedies. Some have recently 
asked, in order to smooth out the deficiencies of the law, to place the communal grazing 
under 'a grazing regime,' similar to the regime applicable to the administration of 
the communal forests." 



STATISTICS OF REFORESTATION 145 

With this brief sketch (translated and digested from official sources) 
of the development of reforestation legislation it must be clear what a 
task it has been to secure the legislative authority for the reclamation of 
these devastated areas. 

Statistics of Reforestation. — The figures which follow show the ex- 
penditures and acreage as of January 1, 1909. The areas comprise the 
land within the boundaries of the projects acquired under the terms of 
the budget for reforestation and often include the remains of ruined 
forests which require improvement. Land of this nature has been in- 
cluded under the term "land restocked." The land impossible of forest- 
ation includes the rocky areas of shifting soils, or areas at too great an 
altitude. Land of the last two classes perhaps can some day be in part 
reforested. Discrepancies exist between the area of the land belonging 
to the State and the area reforested partly because the State has of its 
own volition decided not to expropriate land where the conditions have 
become more favorable, and partly because, in some places, the neces- 
sary nurseries and paths could not be constructed. Moreover where 
the compartments are of considerable extent the area to be forested is 
naturally limited by the local labor supply, for it appears to be good policy 
to employ the local mountaineers, so that they can receive in salaries an 
equivalent of the revenue which they lose through loss of grazing ground. 
This delay is not disadvantageous, for it gives the soil an excellent rest. 
The expense does not stop with the restoration work, for the maintenance 
cost is becoming greater from year to year, and a comparison of the re- 
sults on January 1, 1893, and on January 1, 1909, sixteen years later, is 
of interest. During 32 years — 1860 to 1891 — 248,863 acres were 
purchased and 16,951 acres were reforested. During the period from 
1893 to 1909 — 16 years — the area purchased was 263,740 acres and the 
area forested was 194,236 acres. These figures show that during the 
latter period the work progressed twice as rapidly as at the start. The 
Alpes contain about 65^ per cent of the eroded areas of France, with 23^ 
per cent in the Cevennes and Central Plateau and 11 per cent in the 
Pyrenees. In 1894 Demontzey reported that there were 1,462 distinct 
torrents in France, divided as follows: Alpes, 1,138; Cevennes and Central 
Plateau, 206; and Pyrenees, 118. Huffel says that "two-thirds of the 
torrents of Europe are in France." 

For the three main forestation divisions (1) the Alpes, (2) the Cevennes 
and the Central Plateau, and (3) the Pyrenees — the official summary of 
the work undertaken is given in Table 14. 

During the period from 1860 to 1909 the work executed by the com- 
munes (see Table 15) amounted to 21.6 per cent, by the departments 
23.4 per cent, and by the State 54.9 per cent of the total expenditures 
of $1,433,994.59 to reforest 134,064 acres. The contribution of the 



146 



CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 









M 


VI , •* 1 






O rt 


-H oq 






l-H t^ C 


N 


•a 
a 

cS 13 

~.2 


pn^i JO 




^ 


snoijismboy 


CO 2 S 1 S 1 


"o'S 






CO 






s© " 


1 99 




CO oo >ra 1 — 1 


go- 




CO ov o 1 05 1 




M ai T 


^ s: 


& CS 








W 


spnpi I[B JO 5IJ0A\ 


cT »rD -^ 

CO t^ •* 
r^ t^ CM 

rt rt 00 




» 


1 e& 






»-< t^ 00 CO 






CO 00 IN •»< 






l^ CO rt 




pUB[ JO 






saoiiismboy 


>o i-T 00 10 

CO '<J^ ^H 
-H_ CO CO Q0_ 






CO oi 


U5 








1 99 




t^ I^ 1 •* 1 








■: '^ 






I>^ 00 '- 


-It-: 






00 -^ CO C5 






r-;, >o CO ~ 




moj^ 


C<l -^ CO 

^ M t-_ 






00 cq" - 


H t— 1 1 








1 u 






,_, li^ CO 1 CVi 1 








- 


1 '^. 








c^i 10 CO 








10 CO O) 








CO C^ CO 


m 




sno8nBiiaDsii\[ 


01 00 CO ^■■ 


m 






■^JH t-t kr 


5 CM 








e© 


1 9& 


V 










o. 






§ « f 


: S 


W 






00 10 c 


:> "* 






j?jBT[txny 


1 '^ ° 


1 uo 




o 






S 




c; CO c 


: •-< 




1 




CO -»• 


3 CO 






06 C^ C£ 


> 00 








r^ ■* c^ 


} -^ 






noi^oejjoQ 


CO C<1^ c 

CO oT o( 
1^ 00 c 

i 






CO 00 w 


J OS 








CO (N <> 


00 








10 !>.■«: 


06 








cq 02 u- 








Xjisajo^ 


02^ CO oc 
T-7 t-^ c*" 

CO c 

CO CO -^ 


3 








»0 CO -rt 


■q 






S8JD13 


s §s 





^ 




'P91S8JOJ8J 


«5 C^ 







aqox 


s S ^ 


CO 


1 






'^ 


^^ 




CO CO oc 


w 


"o 




sajoi3 


06 r-^ t^ 


CO 


2 




';S8JOJ8J a( 


10 C^l C<1 

^_ oq oc 


>o 


3 
1 




eiqissodtui 


00 


CO 




CO CO — 


r-- 






t-^ CO oc 


06 




■a 


eajoB 


<M C-J xt 










1 c> — 






'paisajojay 




CO 




h^ 




s - " 


CO 






t- Ci c^ 


01 






Saj313 


-rt^ C^ 
C-) CO OC 


00 






'pajmbOB 


-^ CO 0- 
CO ^ 


"^ 






aqox 


-^ CO CO 


■^ 


C3 












lO oi c- 





<: 






ts oc 


05 




sajoB 


CO 00 CO 


00 






'pau.MO-a^B^g 


Tl<" T* CO 


s 






_ 
























L 
























a 












0) 








m 













a 




•a 












ca 








^ 


I 


ill 

g:s>g 






°'>£ Ph ^ 








1 


< 





A 




1 



EROSION AND PRECIPITATION 



147 



State included money or seed and plants, the plants having been esti- 
mated below their actual value. 

TABLE 15.— SUMMARY OF FORESTATION BY COMMUNES, 1860-1909 



Departments 



Alpes 

Cevennes and Central 
Plateau 

Pyrenees 

Miscellaneous depart- 
ments 

Total 



Area 
refor- 
ested, 
acres 



66,539 

48,169 
9,479 

9,877 



134,064 



Amount spent 



By the com- 
munes 



$159,428.48 

55,813.81 
35,843.09 

58,603.74 



,689.12 



By the 

departments 



$151,217.76 

123,803.13 
44,164.76 

18,830.41 



$338,016.06 



By the State 



176.16 



271.501.52 
106,814.37 

58,797.41 



$786,289.46 



Total expense 



$659,822.40 

451,118.43 
186,822.20 

136,231.56 



[,433,994.59 



Most of the forestation work done by individuals (see Table 16) during 
the period from 1860 to 1909 was paid for by the individuals. The de- 
partments assisted them to the extent of 5.3 per cent of the total expense 

TABLE 16.— SUMMARY OF FORESTATION BY INDIVIDUALS, 1860-1909 



Departments 



Alpes 

Cevennes and Central 
Plateau 

Pyrenees 

Miscellaneous depart- 
ments 

Total 



Area 
refor- 
ested, 
acres 



13,092 

107,442 

7,887 

3,967 



132,388 



Amount spent 



By in- 
dividuals 



$72,862.02 

383,435.79 
54,011.72 

17,051.47 



$527,361.00 



By the 
departments 



$4,151.09 

42,427.33 
1,987.90 

115.80 



^,682.12 



By the State 



$27,286.33 

270,860.93 
24,543.67 

13,847.72 



$336,538.65 



Total expense 



$104,299.44 

696,724.05 
80,543.29 

31,015.00 



$912,581.78 



and the State 36.9 per cent, leaving 57.8 per cent to be paid for by indi- 
viduals — a total amount of $912,581.78 spent to reforest 132,388 acres, 
or a cost of $6.89 per acre.* 

THE DAMAGE 

Erosion and Precipitation. — It has already been pointed out (see p. 141 ) 
that the rainfall is heavier in the mountains than in the plains, and that 

* In addition to expenditures for reforestation, allotments during the 10 years from 
1899 to 1909 for the improvement of grazing amounted to $110,440. These figures 
show the enormous damage that has resulted from deforestation (mostly due to over- 
grazing) in the mountains of France, which should serve as a warning to all other coun- 
tries where abuse of forest or grazing lands is in its infancy. 



148 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

as a general rule the precipitation increases with the altitude. Accord- 
ing to an official report : 

"While atmospheric precipitation gives birth to torrents in the mountain regions, 
one must not overlook the fact that this same moisture enables the creation of forest 
stands to diminish the violence of floods." 

It is clear, therefore, that the rains have a double effect. From one 
viewpoint they damage the mountains; and from the other they make 
forests possible and thus prevent disastrous erosion. 

A part of the abundant rainfall is absorbed by the ground, a part is 
evaporated and a part runs off in streams. The quantity of water 
absorbed naturally depends on the character of the soil and on its vege- 
tative cover. The runoff depends on the slope for its speed, and the 
evaporation (which is often very great) depends upon the water being 
available. Natural vegetation plays an important part. On impervious 
rocks practically all the water either runs off or is evaporated. On per- 
meable ground, especially if it is wooded, most of the water is absoi'bed. 
The desirability, therefore, of having the slopes forested is apparent. On 
the other hand, one must not lose sight of the fact that on impermeable 
surf aces " certain ground sometimes . . . absorbs water to the satu- 
ration point and slides according to the degree of slope." 

After prolonged rains or storms the water erodes the surface of the soil 
and forms ravines. While this form of erosion is dangerous it is not 
nearly so difficult to control as landslides, which occur where the per- 
meable soil is saturated and slides over an impermeable surface. Snow 
frequently causes damage; it forms avalanches which erode ravines by 
tearing away the surface»of the soil. Hail acts mechanically in detaching 
little particles of rock and in facilitating the movement of large rocks 
down steep slopes. Variations of temperature and wind all assist in 
erosive action. "The wind is a denuding agent which is often very 
active." According to my notes: 

"In the Maritime Alpes on a windy day thousands of particles of rock and soil are 
moved by the wind; this makes a peculiar noise which struck me as being especially 
mournful." 

Sometimes a considerable mass of water accumulates under a glacier 
and when it breaks out erodes a ravine with great rapidity. 

Rocks and Soils Easily Eroded. — In the Alps the soils which disinte- 
grate the more readily are the marls, the schists, the gypsums (including 
the so-called "terres noires"), and, finally, the detritus and the glacial 
and alluvial sediment. The very great abundance of land of this 
nature explains the intensity of the damage done by torrents in this 
region. Most of the slopes are steep, and the water of storms or heavy 
rains concentrates rapidly in the arroyos and is laden with debris of 



DEFINITION OF A TORRENT 149 

every kind resulting from superficial erosion. The black schists dis- 
integrate in small fragments and form small ravines analogous to those 
in the granites and in the mica schists of the Cevennes and of the Central 
Plateau. The other "black soils" are even more easily washed and 
erode with very great rapidity. Soils of this kind are deeply ravined 
as soon as they are denuded. Glacial deposits also erode with extreme 
ease. These muds, often soaked to a great depth by rain or by melted 
snow, flow wherever they are not held in place by vegetation. The 
ravines that they make deepen very rapidly and become the courses of 
torrents which transport the detritus into the valleys below. It often 
happens that erodible soil rests on a steep, rocky, or compact clayey 
bed Here the water filters into the top soil and great masses of earth 
are detached and slide to the bottoms of the ravines. Unstable ground 
frequently fiows in a rock-mud-water lava. Fragments of all kinds of 
rock accumulate in the ravines and mix with the eroded earth from the 
black soil, forming a fluid mass which slides slowly or rapidly according 
to the slope of the stream bed and the amount of rain. 

In the Cevennes and the Central Plateau the slopes formed by gneiss, 
mica schists. Paleozoic schists, and granites disintegrate the most easily. 
True torrent gorges are not formed on them, but instead a multitude of 
furrows and ravines, which transport great quantities of sandy material 
and fragments of rocks. It is a region of torrential rivers rather than of 
torrent courses such as are found in the Alps. The Pyrenees are char- 
acterized by an abundance of glacial or semi-glacial deposits. The 
granites disintegrate and the detritus covers considerable areas. In 
the Corbieres the marls are especially exposed to erosion, which form 
short, straight torrent gorges or ravines which have numerous branches 
that feed and fill up the water courses with detritus. 

Limestone is usually fissured, so that rain water rapidly penetrates 
the interior of the rock if the surface is not protected by thick grass or 
by well-rooted forest vegetation. Where the soil becomes denuded 
steady and deep erosion often forms gorges that have abrupt slopes. 
It is clear that excess of water is the chief danger on all easily erodible 
soils. From the forester's standpoint, however, too little water or 
drought is the greatest obstacle to the reclamation of land of this type, 
for the soil becomes baked and excessively arid as soon as it loses its 
protective vegetative cover. The soils thus suffer from the extremes of 
too much moisture and lack of moisture. 

Definition of a Torrent. — The snow on the high mountains protects 
the rocks and soil against various disintegrating agencies but not against 
erosion due to glaciers and to subglacial water. Erosion of the soil 
and of the rocks accordingly takes place below the limit of perpetual 
snow, a limit that ranges from 8,850 to 10,800 feet in the Alps and in 



150 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

the Central and Western Pyrenees. In the Eastern Pyrenees and in 
the Cevennes and the Central Plateau there is not much year-long snow. 
Even after deducting the areas protected by snow in the Alps and Pyre- 
nees, vast areas of erodible ground remain. The north and northeast 
slopes remain covered with snow for considerable periods in each year 
and consequently suffer less than the other slopes. On these slopes the 
variations in temperature are less sudden and of less extent, the rains 
are even less intensive, and the vegetation is habitually more vigorous 
than on south slopes. Therefore most of the torrent gorges are formed 
on south and west slopes. A French definition of a torrent gorge says 
it is: 

"A temporary water-course in which the water concentrates after heavy rainfall 
and acquires, because of its mass and because of the slope of the stream bed, a con- 
siderable live force. The characteristic trait of torrent gorges is the faculty which they 
possess of reuniting in a single flood all the water falling within a certain time on an 
extensive area. This faculty is due to the configuration of the ground and the principal 
feature of a torrent gorge, that which gives it being is a collecting basin which favors 
the rapid concentration of rainfall. The basin of reception of a torrent, called also the 
funnel, is a more or less complete circle on whose steep slopes falls the water of heavy 
rains. . . . The Gavarnie 'circus' in the Pyrenees is a good example. . . . The 
torrents run in very short valleys, which cut the mountains at right angles to the slope 
just as in simple depressions. Their slope may exceed 6 per cent for their entire length 
but it varies a great deal and is never less than 2 per cent. They have an entirely 
special characteristic in that they flow in areas determined by their courses, resting 
upon one another and diverging because of their deposits. According to Scipiongras, 
a torrent is a water course whose rise is swift and violent, whose slopes are considerable 
and irregular and which often raises certain parts of its bed because of the deposit of 
material; it is this which makes the water diverge at the time of floods." 

Torrent gorges may be the courses of temporary or permanent streams 
whose beds are not yet fixed and which perform the work of carrying 
away the mountain for deposit in the plain. The following definition 
is also of value: 

"A torrent gorge is a temporary or permanent water course in which the water 
concentrates with extreme rapidity after heavy rains and by its energy of movement 
digs out its bed, which is considerable because of the mountain slope and because of 
the increase in density of the material transported. The soil and debris of all kinds 
eroded by the waters are deposited on the plain." 

These different definitions support each other. Ravines have the 
same character as torrent gorges but are less strongly marked. "A 
ravine is a branch of a torrent gorge in process of formation. . . . " 

Formation of Torrent Gorges. — The energy of movement or force of 
water that flows down a steep slope is greater at the base of the slopes 
than at the summit and erosion is therefore greatest at the base. It 
also follows that the lower part of the slope is often erodible ground 



CAUSES OF TORRENTS IN MOUNTAIN FORESTS 151 

and, moreover, it is ordinarily little protected by forest vegetation, for 
in France much land of this type is in fields or is devoted to agriculture. 
The formation of a torrent gorge involves three distinct areas: (1) 
An area on which rain water falls before it runs into the "thalweg" or 
collecting basin; (2) an eroded area, the torrential gorge or bed; and 
(3) an area of deposit, the delta or torrential cone. Surell designates, 
under the name of the basin of reception — 

" . . . The region in which the water collects and floods the ground, but, when 
concerned with work of restoration, it is preferable to consider the entire collecting basin 
under the general definition of basin ; . . . the space at the bottom of which runs a 
course of water and into which all the slopes are drained." 

Torrent gorges that form on steep mountain slopes are short and 
usually run at right angles to the slopes. Where the slope is gentle 
the length of the gorge increases and the curves or bends in the gorge 
probably increase. These curves seem to be due to the unequal resist- 
ance of different parts of the hills. A torrential cone does not always 
exist at the base of the torrent gorge. Sometimes the gorge or the 
drainage way extends to the bottom of the valley and the material borne 
by the torrent is deposited in a river which carries it away. 

Causes of Torrents in Mountain Forests. — Huffel says that torrential 
rains, easily eroded surfaces, and steep slopes promote torrents. Tor- 
rent gorges — the products of erosion — may be due immediately or 
directly to natural conditions or operations, but are usually directly 
or indirectly due to the destruction of the soil cover by the residents of 
the region in which they occur. It is conceivable that an exceptional 
storm might start erosion that would form a torrent gorge in a virgin 
forest. An accumulation of overmature timber or natural windfall 
coupled with a heavy snowfall and rapid melting may produce avalanches 
and denuded slopes. The area at the upper limit of tree growth is 
always hable to damage from the normal snowslides which are so preva- 
lent in high mountains. Numerous other causes of "normal" damage 
by nature to forested areas could be cited, but under the usual condi- 
tions this change in topography — a change which is continually going 
on all over the world — is slow and locahzed. Where valley after 
valley that was once forested is being eroded and where there are numer- 
ous torrents nature is not alone to blame. The destruction must be 
due (1) to deforestation and (2) to the breaking of the soil surface. 
In France the once forested mountain areas that are now being repaired 
at so great expense were overcut, burned, and overgrazed. This might 
be termed collectively "abusive use." Even to-day typical examples 
abound (see also p. 153). 

At Mont Dore (Puy-de-D6me) there are Roman mineral springs, and 
around the watering places there has been partial deforestation caused 



152 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

by fire and grazing. On the west side of the valley there are belts of 
forest that extend from the foot of the slope almost to the top. On the 
east side, which faces the west or the south, the forest belt is narrower. 
At the head of the valley there is hardly any forest at all, because the 
slopes are rocky and very steep. Above and between the present forest 
zones grazing by sheep had started erosion and landsHdes. The soil, 
permeated with water, loosens and slides down, the slides producing great 
gullies. This is a good example of how small torrents begin. 

At Barcelonnette it was pointed out that the beginning of ravines on 
bare grass-covered slopes was usually due to grazing by sheep and par- 
ticularly to permanent bedding grounds at the heads of high mountain 
valleys. According to my field notes : 

"The Ravine de Roche Noire (Basses- Alpes) 50 to 60 years ago was merely a cow 
trail or a path where wood was sledded down the slope. The soil, formed of a schist- 
marl, has now been eroded to a depth of 30 to 40 feet. As no dams were built when the 
slopes of this ravine were reforested the erosion has continued, and it is now necessary 
to build low, dry stone dams to prevent further damage. Without these dams, which 
are built without masonry binder, the erosion wiU eat in 20 inches after a single bad 
storm. It was explained that this erosion was not caused by grazing but was merely 
due to the falling of rocks, through natural causes, from the precipices above. This 
raises an interesting question : What would the natural erosion in the Alps have amounted 
to without the advent of man! The local inspector said that while sheep grazing is 
still doing great damage it cannot be forbidden or even summarily restricted because 
it is the sole industry of the mountain villages, and drastic restrictions would mean the 
depopulation of the countryside." 

Damage Caused by Torrents. — We have already seen that " a tor- 
rential wash " is a fluid mass which carries material of all sizes and whose 
speed is dependent upon the slope and upon the amount of rainfall. 
This material comes from a number of sources. It may consist of debris 
from the disintegration of rocks, carried by gravity, by water, or by 
avalanches; (2) it may be due to simple erosion by rainwater, to sHdes, 
or to the movement of glaciers; (3) it may include trees, branches of 
trees, and debris from fellings, which, even if small, are dangerous ele- 
ments in washes because, on account of their light weight, they do not 
stop until the slope becomes very gentle and they form temporary dams 
behind which the water accumulates only to break forth and inflict greater 
damage lower down. Each year torrents and ravines cause material and 
even great damage and, only too often, loss of human life. Such acci- 
dents direct public attention to their danger. The direct losses during 
17 years are estimated in Table 17, and it is very noteworthy that the 
damage was always less in the areas where erosion betterments had been 
started: 



POLICY AND SUMMARY 



153 



TABLE 17 — LOSSES FROM NOTABLE TORRENTS FROM 1890-1907 



Year 



18901 

1891 J 

1891 

1892 

1895 

1897 

1897 

1897 

1899 

1899 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1901 

1904 

1906 

1906 

1906 

1907 

1907 

1907 

1907 

1907 



Locality 



Bassin des Gardens (Lozere). 



Bassin de la Beaume (Ardeche) 

Le glacier de Tete-Rousse (Haute-Savoie) 

Bassin du Gave Pau (Hautes-Pyrenees) 

Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne) 

Bassin de la Haute-Ariege (Ariege) 

Bassin de Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees) 

Bassin de I'Allier (Ardeche) 

Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne) 

Bassin de I'Arve (Haute-Savoie) 

Bassin de la Beaume (Ardeche) 

Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne) 

Bassin du Tarnon (Lozere) 

Bassin du Doron (Savoie) 

Bassin de 1' Arc (Savoie) 

Bassin de Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees) 

Bassin de Gave de Pau 

Bassin de la Lergue (Herault) 

Bassins de I'Herault et de la Dourbie (Gard). 

Bassin de la Ceze (Gard) 

Bassin des Gardens (Gard) 

Miscellaneous basins (Lozere) 

Total 1890-1907 



Financial losa 



$225,810 

317,485 
337,750 « 
10,000 
100,000" 
48,250 
50,000 « 
9,650 
10,000 « 
2,000 
1,761,125 
10,000 
57,900 
96,500 
115,800 
1,000 '^ 
15,000 « 
2,000 « 
500 « 
1,000 « 
200,000 
5,000 a 



3,376,770 



° Amount of loss estimated. 



CORRECTIVE MEASURES 

Policy and Summary. — Briot, formerly a conservator in the French 
Forest Service, was the first to make a fight against "dead works" in 
reforestation as opposed to Hving plantations of grass, shrubs, or trees. 
The final judgment of the French foresters seems to be that though to 
permanently reclaim an eroded area vegetation is essential, yet dams, walls, 
and like works are also necessary. During the early work in the Alps, 
the operations of the French engineers might possibly be criticised on the 
ground that they depended too much on masonry dams (see Fig. 10, a to d) 
and purely artificial corrective works rather than on the permanent vege- 
tation (grass, shrubs, and trees) which is necessary if erosion is to be 
permanently corrected. Briot did a great deal of good in agitating for less 
masonry and for more vegetation. He argued that to get at the root 
of the evil the correction must start at the top of the slope because other- 
wise the dams fill up with silt and the slopes remain as bad as before. 
Possibly Briot went to extremes in his propaganda against the methods 
then current, but to-day it is unquestionable that the results of his 
attacks have been beneficial. The present methods are the result of 
having wasted public money and of having profited by the mistakes. 



154 



CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 














v«i- *.'xi;i* #* 



^';v-" 



>>^ 


^ 


o 




fl 


>5 


q; 


!h 


tH 


03 


fo 


cc 




m 




<o 




o 




OJ 


d 


CI 


_o 






(B 


'm 


-73 
o3 


2 


s 


o 




-^ 


CO 





o 5 -^ 



c3 ^ 



^ 



-73 > ^ 



'. ^t3 
^ ^ bS} 

2 a.S 



fe 



^-s^ 



>sfi 



^rilJIt'V^i* L . 'J 



POLICY AND SUMMARY 



155 



c 


j5 


o 


0; 


xn 


;-( 


c3 


fe 


a 




-o 




c 


,,^ 


03 


cc 




V 


CO 


a 




^ 






bib 


to 

0) 


a 

3 


CO 


'm 


M 





11 



as 



a 

oS 


.a 




T3 


'-3 




a 
o 


1 
S 




to 


g 




b 


o. 




M 


p— t 




-o 


^ 
















c3 


g 




bC 


>» 




O 


o 




1 


s 
^ 




^^ 


> 




^ 












o 


•+^ 


43 


o3 


§• 






;^ 


c 


c2 


bO 


_C 


O 


s 


'S 


o 




o 


^ 




« 


o. 



156 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

One of the first problems to arise — a problem of great importance 
practically — was : How much ground should the work of restoration 
cover? According to Surrel and his followers it is necessary to include the 
entire receiving basin of a torrent and the slopes of the gorge. To-day 
it is still felt to be best to include as large an area as possible to take in 
the torrent basins and their slopes. The communes usually, with their nar- 
row self-interest, argue for withdrawing the minimum area; the Forest Ser- 
vice, on the other hand, realizes the technical requirements and desires to 
set aside the area already eroded and the area immediately threatened. 

The correction of the effects of a "torrent" comprises a number of 
operations, all closely related to their effect upon the surface of the 
slopes and the bed of the stream: Dams (barrages), walls, rock drains, 
protection against avalanches, the paving of channels, the building of 
tunnels and aqueducts, wattle work (garnissage), and the introduction of 
grass, shrubs, or trees. 

Concisely stated, a theoretical torrent above a rich village might be 
controlled somewhat as follows: Where a ledge of rock crosses a stream 
bed, and where there are good foundations, a base masonry dam is con- 
structed; at the same time dry stone dams are built higher up the main 
bed to prevent deeper erosion of the stream bottom. A slope in danger of 
sliding into the main bed is fixed by a masonry retaining wall. Small, 
incipient gullies are rocked over as drains to prevent further erosion and 
to act as permanent drains. Small ravines are held in place by wattle 
work and garnissage (p. 162). Beginning at the top of slopes that 
are liable to erosion selected areas are first sodded; then, as soon as the 
soil is stable enough, shrubs are planted on the slopes and in the stream 
beds. After shrubs are established and the soil is held in place trees are 
planted. Wattle work may be necessary here and there where the soil 
is crumbling away, and the main bed of the torrent perhaps must be paved 
to prevent further washing below the base dam. 

An illustration of the corrective methods employed (see also p. 168) 
in full swing is afforded by the torrent of St. Julien, in Savoie. Here the 
schist is easily eroded, for it is very friable. The torrent begins at an 
altitude of 9,186 feet, is 6.2 miles long, and covers some 4,942 acres of 
land, of which 1,866 acres belong to the State. The village of St. Julien 
had been damaged, parts of a railroad and wagon road had been washed 
away, and portions of Mont-Denis were gradually sliding and were being 
washed away by the torrent. The corrective measures employed were 
as follows : 

Where there was danger that the stream might undermine a promi- 
nent ridge, and to reduce the flow of water in the main channel, it was 
conducted 843 feet through a 32 per cent tunnel cut through solid rock. 
Where the stream passed the village it was paved to prevent further 



TECHNIQUE OF DAMS 157 

erosion. In order to reduce the slope of the stream bed to approxi- 
mately a 5 per cent grade, where the erosion was most severe, it was 
necessary to construct twenty-six small and three large dams. Along 
one stretch there was one dam every 85 feet. The catchment basin is 
being grassed over and planted. In addition a very complete system 
of rock drains has been built on the most dangerous slopes. A drain 
13 feet deep and 5 feet wide cost $2.31 per running yard; one 5 feet deep 
and 3.3 feet wide cost only 97 cents per yard. It was necessary to put 
in a holding wall at the foot of the slope, where erosion was particularly 
severe. The trees planted included alder, willow, Scotch pine, ash, oak, 
maple, and poplar. It is interesting to note that for planting Scotch 
pine, two-year seedlings are used in spots with two seedlings per spot. 
The spots are 12 to 20 inches square and number about 2,800 per acre. 
The cost of stopping the movement of the earth on Mont-Denis, together 
with the system of trails that it was necessary to build, was $30,494, 
and the improvements on this one torrent alone have cost, so far (1913), 
over $129,310. 

This example affords an excellent illustration of the difficulty of cor- 
recting erosion after it has once started, and shows the absolute necessity 
of not letting it get a start. Much of the difficulty has been caused by 
waiting too long before beginning corrective measures. 

Technique of Dams. — The principal objects of dams are (1) to stop 
material transported by the water, (2) to diminish the speed of the 
water, (3) to prevent further erosion, (4) to prevent the enlargement 
of the torrent bed and the erosion of the border talus, and (5) to hold up 
unstable slopes. Dams are constructed in torrents and ravines that 
are under active erosion. It is usually advisable to establish dams of 
about the same size, that they may be homogeneous, and to avoid the 
installation of secondary dams of doubtful stabihty. Of course, uni- 
formity of construction cannot always be maintained. The dams must 
be constructed to fit local conditions, and usually the torrents have a 
double character. Their slopes are eroding and the material eroded is 
carried along in the flood. In certain places it is sufficient to construct 
a stone step across the bed to prevent further erosion. As the construc- 
tion of these stone dams is entirely a work of engineering based on the 
stress which they must withstand, no details of construction are given. 
Above each dam it is customary to construct a rough paved area at the 
level of the dam, 2| to 5 feet in thickness. It is constructed with stones 
which cannot be used in the masonry work. These paved areas are 
made to diminish the drop upstream so as to decrease the pressure of 
the water collected behind the dam. But there can be no ironclad pro- 
cedure. So far as the work of correction is concerned, it is usually best 
to construct only absolutely necessary dams at the base of the torrent 



158 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

until the small dams at the head have been built. The base dam must 
be faced upstream on a part of the stream bed which is absolutely stable. 
It is necessary to avoid building so-called "suspended" dams, which 
must necessarily disappear as the stream erodes upward or downward. 
It often happens that a torrent is intersected by a rocky barrier. This 
barrier or ledge is an excellent point for the base dam. 

Many of the dams in the Alps are simple, some of them consisting of 
a single log staked in position across the bed of a ravine. The general 
tendency is to avoid building expensive masonry dams and to build 
simple stone dams without mortar. Formerly it was often the practice 
to curve the face of the dam, but now they are built straight, for ex- 
perience has proved that the curved dam is not necessary to withstand 
the average pressure. 

Walls and Protection Against Avalanches. — The main protective 
measures against avalanches are walls, benches, or steps with wattle 
work or high stumps. (See Fig. 11, a to c.) Avalanches are very 
frequent in the high mountains, and most of them follow the depres- 
sions or the lines of least resistance, where they do not cause a great 
deal of damage. But it is often necessary to prevent them, especially 
if they menace villages or carry great quantities of eroded material or 
if they damage forested areas. Walls (or benches) are usually built 
where the snow begins to slide. The walls are built of dry masonry and 
usually have a total height of 6| feet and a minimum length of 50 feet. 
The width at the top is from 24 to 31 inches, depending on the height. 
The depth of the foundation varies with the ground and is sometimes as 
much as 5 feet. So far as possible, large stones are used, preferably of 
the same width as the wall. Masonry is used when dry stone of the 
proper size and quantity is not available. On a slope that has a practi- 
cally uniform grade walls are run on the level at equal distances apart. 
Where the snow slides in regular runways, the walls are really dams, 
some with a clear height of 10 feet and a width of 31 inches at the top, 
with an increase of one in five inches to the base. In Savoie, where 
there is no resistant material at hand for such construction and where 
consequently it is not possible to build regular barriers, it is necessary 
to build benches, a bench being a flat pocket in the rock 3.3 feet wide 
and about 33 feet long. Where possible, this is inclosed with a small 
wall on the outside of the cut to collect debris. The benches constructed 
in the Pyrenees are of two different types: (1) Horizontal platforms 
about 6| feet wide, slopes slightly downward toward the mountain. 
The talus is held by a dry stone wall with a decrease in width of 1 in 5 
toward the top. Its length is 16 to 49 feet, 33 feet being the average. 
These platforms are 26 to 33 feet apart horizontally and about 33 feet 
below one another. (2) The platform cut into the side of the mountain 





Fig. 11 (a). — Retaining walls on a hillside that had been shpping down. (French 
official photograph.) 

(b). — Walls to prevent avalanches (at top) with an inspection trail in the fore- 
ground. (French official photograph.) 

(c). — Walls to prevent avalanches. (French official photograph.) 159 



160 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

serves as a support for dry stone barricades that jut out about 6^ feet. 
If the walls or benches are in a forested region the plantations are made 
under their protection; here they are considered only temporary for 
when the trees take hold protection is no longer necessary. Sometimes 
it has been found advisable to establish ordinary snow walls to turn snow 
slides from their course; where pockets of snow are heaped up by the 
wind it is often necessary to build walls 3.3 to 5 feet high back of the 
drifts to prevent the snow from blowing over. Wooden snow fences 
and wind shields, so common in the western United States, are not 
used in France. The tendency in France is ever toward simplification 
in the protection against avalanches; sometimes chunks of earth are cut 
out of a steep slope 13 to 16 feet in length and 3.3 feet in width at the 
bottom. Stakes are then set at the lower limit of the cut and are bound 
together with branches. With a large number of these steps cut in the 
slope avalanches can often be prevented, for the pits or steps act as 
catchment areas for loose material that slides down. These pits are 
often placed 7.5 to 10 feet apart vertically and 6.5 feet apart horizontally. 
Where there is danger from slides in partly forested areas, or where the 
timber has been killed by fire, dead and dying trees in improvement 
fellings are cut, and their stumps, 2 to 5 feet high, used to anchor the 
snow. 

Rock Drains. — Saturated soil loses all cohesion and flows on a steep 
slope; it even slides on underlying strata that are less permeable. These 
earth movements are due to the infiltration of water coming from pro- 
longed rains, from the melting of snows, from deep springs, and from 
irrigating canals that are not leak-proof. Such movements are combated 
by drainage, which makes the soil cohere and thus prevents slides. In 
order to accomplish this work canals or drains are built to conduct the 
water into the valley bottoms. (See Fig. 12.) Where considerable 
ground is in movement it is not possil)le to open trenches sufficiently 
deep for drainage, but by digging a large number of drains the soil can be 
dried up and a sufficiently resistant surface formed to prevent it from 
disintegrating. The average depth of such drains is 6.5, 5, and 3.3 feet. 
The deepest drains, called "collectors," ordinarily have a width at the 
bottom of 28 inches and an increase in width toward the top of 1 in 5. 
The best drains have a concave base, built on a radius of 10 or 20 per 
cent, and are so constructed as to form a canal of triangular construction. 
Above this base the ditch is filled with stones of all sizes, the largest 
being placed at the bottom. Drains 6.5 feet deep for the chief drainage 
and 3.3 feet deep for the lateral drainage generally suffice. The triangular 
section is sometimes replaced by a half-circular section or by a rectangular 
section, which is easier to construct. Second-class or third-class drains 
have a depth of 3.3 to 5 feet and a width at the bottom of 16 to 24 inches. 



ROCK DRAINS 



161 



The drains must be large enough to insure the prompt runoff of water. 
Under exceptional circumstances the French have managed to dry ground 
to a great depth, sometimes up to 10 to 13 feet, but the expense is much 
greater. First-class drains are generally built where the slope is steep, in 
order to assure rapid runoff. They are less likely to be dislocated by soil 
movements. At the head of drains little walls are constructed as props. 




Fig. 12. 
graph.) 



Paved drains at Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees). (French official photo- 



When the drainage water is abundant it is often united in a paved trench 
built in the valley bottom to carry the water under the dams. Where the 
soil movements are due to a leaky canal it is often better to stop the cause 
of the infiltration rather than to take up the expensive work of drainage. 
To prevent running water from eroding the soil it is often advisable to 
collect it in little canals, about 20 inches in depth, which follow the slope 
and which are filled with little stones or fascines. These canals can be 
replaced by paved drains if the earth is in movement. Trees are planted 



162 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

as soon as the drainage has made the soil sufficiently stable. Drainage 
has always been satisfactory where it has been used to stop superficial 
slides over a small area or to dry up saturated soil. Where earth is 
sHding over a nonpermeable surface the timber still standing is almost 
invariably cut so as not to retain surplus water. 

Paving Channels. — The typical torrent is almost dry except during a 
period of storms. To prevent erosion, enlargement, and changes in the 
main channel bed it is necessary to pave the bed. This facilitates the 
passing of the detritus during floods, especially below the base dam. 

Tunnels and Aqueducts. — In a few places it is necessary to use tunnels 
or aqueducts to conduct excess water through ridges or over artificial 
obstacles, such as roads or railways. For example, near Thonon (Haute- 
Savoie), where the limestone soil is badly eroded, a road is protected by 
carrying the wash from a ravine over it on an aqueduct. 

Wattle Work (Gamissage). — On steep slopes (more than 60 per cent) 
and in small ravines wattle work is often necessary. (See Fig. 13, a and 
b.) A common method is to stick willow shoots in the ground 1 to 3 
feet apart and to weave willow branches in between the shoots to hold 
the rocks and shifting earth. The shoots take root and when established 
assist in holding the sod, when forestation becomes possible. Another 
system of building wattle work (now largely abandoned) was to lay the 
brush straight up and down the stream bed and pin it in position with 
cross pieces every 6.5 feet. The latest method is to lay the brush as 
formerly but to hold it in place with two stakes driven in the soil in the 
shape of a V, the head of the V pointing down stream. According to 
Demontzey: 

"The 'garnissage' correction of little dry ravines and the consolidation of unstable 
slopes is as follows: 

"In the dry ravines of the Alps 'garnissage' is often used in the bed of the stream; 
stems of branches are laid on the bottom so that the ends of the branches may be toward 
the top. By dry ravines is meant those that carry no water during normal times or 
those in which there is a very small trickle of water. The branches are so placed as 
to form a sbghtly concave surface, and are held in place here and there by cross pieces 
taxed in place by stakes. The most common form of 'garnissage' employed during the 
past years has been to place brush on the bottom of the ravine and then to mat it down 
by interwoven branches. When completed, the branches form squares on top of the 
debris. Winter willow or poplar branches are used, and the ends are covered with 
earth, commencing from the top of the ravine and extending downward, so that they 
can take root and form a living protection. Most 'garnissage' eventually results in 
vegetation that forms a permanent protection against erosion. In the Maritime Alpes 
where branches cannot be had at a reasonable expense, the flow of water in the ravines 
is controlled by a series of little dams formed of balls of sod, used alone or combined 
with stone. When the water falls it is stopped at each dam so that it cannot attain 
sufficient velocity to be dangerous. The debris backs up behind each httle dam and 
further lessens the velocity of water. . . . The dams must become larger and larger 
down stream in order to resist the floods . . . until these dams reach a height of 3.3 



WATTLE WORK (GARNISSAGE) 



163 




=3 -^ 

» -a 

eq o 



So 




164 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

feet and a length of several yards. Where sod cannot be obtained layers of branches 
alternating with layers of stone are used. Sometimes also these ravines are held in 
place by small dry stone dams some 16 to 23 inches in height, solidly anchored. In 
the high mountains, in certain places, some of the ravines are filled with stones just as 
if they were small drainage canals. This method of cover has given good results on 
slopes situated at an altitude of 6,500 feet in the upper Verdon valley. In addition to 
fixing the ravine bottom, a necessary precaution to prevent erosion from extending 
farther up is to construct just below the summit a so-called consolidation wall about 
20 inches in height, which if well anchored holds the ground. After this wall is built 
the soil around it can often be sodded over. The methods used for fixing unstable 
banks or slopes are extremely variable. If their instability is very pronounced they 
must be sustained at the bottom by transverse works very much like the wall that 
holds up the side of the ridge. Some slopes can be held up by a superficial cover of 
branches held in place by stakes or poles, such as are used in a ravine. Under the 
shelter of this cover natural vegetation can easily be developed. Little horizontal 
structures, wattle work 10 to 12 inches high, or fascines reinforced by layers of shoots 
between which are sown forage plants, are used everywhere. Where stones are abun- 
dant little walls of dry stone are built, topped with sod." 

Forestation, with Examples.-^ — The purpose of dams, walls, drains, 
wattle work, and other artificial "dead works" is to stop the movement 
of the surface soil, because until that is anchored forestation is impossible, 
and before the final protective cover is planted the surface must often 
be held in place by grass or shrubs. It is clear from the French literature 
on reforestation that engineers have not always admitted or realized the 
importance of vegetative cover for permanent reclamation: 

"Some geologists have expressed the view that a torrent is a phenomenon whose 
development cannot be stopped. If this opinion is accepted there is nothing to do but 
to let the destruction of the mountain go on and try to defend the valleys against the 
results of torrents. Some feel that protection against torrents can be obtained in a 
certain measure (when the limit of slope erosion has approached) by installing a canal 
to conduct the eroded material from the foot of the mountains to the river. But the 
danger is not overcome. The detritus is merely transported from the torrential valley 
to the main valley. Others believe that it is impossible to slow up the torrent by 
these canals and use the water for commerce. They believe that a dam can be built 
high enough to retain the flood waters and that these waters, once stored, can be used 
for commerce or for agriculture, thus making the flood a benefit rather than a damage. 
Quite often this method is possible, provided the ground and the economic conditions 
permit, but it cannot be considered a general answer to the problem. Foresters take 
another point of view. We have already seen that the rapidity of erosion depends on 
the fluid mass, on the slope, on the river bed, and on the resistance of the ground. Is 
it not necessary, therefore, to try to retard the flow and diminish it and to retain the 
rocky debris which is sliding on the slopes? This result can be obtained only by a 
forest cover on the soil in and between the existing ravines." 

Surrel (quoted by Huffel) concluded that: " (1) Forests stop the forma- 
tion of torrents; (2) deforestation dehvers the soil as a prey to torrents; 

5 The methods of forestation are described in Chapter V and the chief species used 
in French reforestation work are given in the Appendix, p. 407. 



FORESTATION, WITH EXAMPLES 165 

(3) the development of forests tends to stop torrents; (4) the fall of 
forests redoubles the violence of torrents and can even start them afresh." 

An interesting study^ that illustrates methods of reforestation is an 
area in the basin of the Ubaye (see Fig. 14, a) which comprises some 46,661 
acres, 18 per cent of which was natural forest, now bearing only 34 per 
cent of a stand. The species growing naturally include larch, fir, spruce, 
mountain pine, beech, oak, alder, and willow. The species introduced 
artificially are Austrian pine, ash, locust, birch, green alder, and aspen. 
Of the species growing naturally the larch is the most valuable and is 
found at its optimum in the forest of St. Paul. Unfortunately the growth 
of Austrian pine slows up and the needles turn yellow when 15 to 25 
years of age. Prior to this the tree makes good growth. 

In this region the limit of stable soil is a slope of 45 per cent. Where 
the slope is less than this the ground can be planted immediately, but 
where it is more the ground must be first sodded before it can be planted 
to* tree growth. Where the slope is 60 per cent or more grassing cannot 
be undertaken, for the instability of the soil is an absolute obstacle. In 
this event it is necessary to construct artificial dams or to wait until the 
accumulation of talus has abated. 

Two general methods have been used to grass over ground that has been 
eroded — sowing forage seed and planting sod. The first method was 
formerly used over large areas in this region but is now limited to un- 
stable soil. "Sainfoin" and "fenasse" (see p. 408) were used separately 
or mixed in the proportion of three to one. The seed was sowed in small 
trenches or in horizontal lines at variable distances apart. On an 
average 18 pounds of seed (costing $9.65) was necessary to sow one acre 
of eroded ground. The labor amounted to $6.75, making a total cost of 
$16.40 per acre. But as a result of experience laying sod has proved to be 
the best method. Large tufts of Clamagrostis argentea were cut from 
near-by grass land and planted in rows 1| to 3 feet apart, or in quincunx. 
The sod costs $3.83 a thousand. Still another method that is often used 
to fix rapidly the slopes of mountains or ravines is to sow "bugrone 
arbrisseau" or to propagate hippophse rhamnoide, or willows, by suckers. 

Sowing was formerly employed in reforestation, but to-day the pref- 
erence is for planting. Cembric pine, larch, and mountain pine are sown 
at high altitudes, provided the slope is not more than 30 per cent to 40 
per cent and there is enough vegetation or rock to protect the young 
seedlings against water and sun. Otherwise planting is considered 
necessary. The seed is sown in the spring, at these high altitudes about 
the end of May. Although the spring sowing is often burned out by the 
sun, if the sowing is delayed too late the germination is retarded and the 

« Etude sur les Forets et les Reboisements de la Vallee de I'llbaye, par H. Vincent, 
1909. 





Fig. 14 (a). — The Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses-Alpes) after the reclamation work 
was finished. (French official photograph.) 

(6). — A mountain village in the Pyrenees menaced by erosion. (French official 
photograph.) 

(c). — Preventing further erosion by larch plantations in Ubaye area (Basses- 
Alpes). (French official photograph.) 

166 



FORESTATION, WITH EXAMPLES 167 

seed is more exposed to mice and to birds. The seed sown in the autumn 
is covered almost at once by snow, and in the high mountains the period 
from September 1 to October 30 is considered the best time. Excellent 
results were occasionally obtained in the past by sowing broad cast on 
the snow, especially by the notable sowing at Barcelonnette in the years 
1842-1846. Now, however, an entirely different method is employed, 
known as the stick method (a la pointe du Ijaton) (see p. 133). 

"The workman, who wears a Httle apron sack belted to his waist, holding 4 to 6 
pounds of seed, is given a stick 1 to IJ inches in diameter and 12 to 16 inches in length. 
With this stick, one end of which is pointed, he makes little furrows in the soil at suit- 
able places. The depth of these furrows should not exceed 0.8 to 1.2 inches and the 
length should be between 8 inches and 3. .3 feet. In this diminutive trench he places 
pinches of seed carefully spaced; one or two seed to each 0.4 inch is amply sufficient; 
as a rule the workmen tend to put in too much, and the seed is thus wasted. Exper- 
ience has shown that this "stick sowing" gives surer and better results than sowing 
by any other method. It is, moreover, quicker and cheaper. Its cost does not exceed 
$3.86 to $4.82 per acre. The amount of seed used per acre is variable, an average 
perhaps of 8.8 pounds for the larch and mountain pine and 22 pounds for cembric pine. 
Moreover, the seedlings obtained ijy this procedure have also the advantage of being 
ready for removal for fall planting if desired." 

This is a local method, however, which has not received wide official 
sanction. At Barcelonnette (see p. 136 for further discussion) consider- 
able success was attained by sowing larch seed on the snow in March or 
April, especially when it was sown on the grass immediately before snow 
fall. In this region the fir is both sown and planted, but apparently, 
according to the local inspector, the best results were obtained by sowing 
seed spots. Spruce is usually planted. Planting is generally employed 
where the soil is bare. According to French practice transplants are not 
necessary. Here, in accordance with French practice, good-sized rocks 
were placed south of seedlings on south slopes in grass where there was 
danger from sun and drying. It is curious to find in the Barcelonnette 
region a considerable use of Austrian pine, although Scotch pine grew 
there naturally. According to the local inspector: 

"The foresters in France always like to change things. This apparently was the 
only reason for using an exotic when a local species would have given better results. 
In this locality, for planting on plateaus in grass, the hole is dug 12 by 12 by 12 inches 
with a grub hoe. The richest soil is placed next the roots and the sod is turned up- 
side down and replaced around the plant. On steep slopes the method is somewhat 
different. The hole is dug 10 to 12 inches deep, 4.5 to 6 inches wide, and 12 to 14 inches 
in length, and care is taken not to cut the sod below the hole, if there is any, in order 
to avoid erosion. A peculiar method of planting in grazing land, where public interest 
demands grazing and yet some tree shelter is desired, is to plant a group of fifty trees 
and then another group about 160 feet away." 

One of the best examples of reforestation in the Alps is in the valley 
of the Drome above Valence, called the Luc working group. Corrective 



168 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

measures were begun in 1865, and on January 1, 1899, 1,547 acres had 
been reclaimed at a total expense of $67,656.15, or about $42 per acre. 
The species planted were chiefly Austrian pine and Scotch pine, but in- 
cluded various broadleaf trees. The Scotch pine is to-day doing very 
well. In another nearby project the cost was $40 per acre, divided as 
follows : 

Cost of soil purchase S9 . 10 

Corrective works (dams, drains, etc.) 11 . 60 

Plantations (grass, shrubs, trees) 19 . 30 

Total $40.00 

These costs would now be doubled or tripled, l)ut today the difference 
in the present rate of exchange and the normal must be deducted to get 
the relative cost in dollars. 

A remarkable example of the control of a torrent which did a great 
deal of damage from 1832 to 1847 is to be found at La Grollaz. The 
correction work was started in 1880. To-day the torrent is a pretty 
brook with waterfalls over artificially constructed cement dams protected 
by an absolutely dense cover of alder, which holds the soil immediately 
along the brook. Further up from the stream Scotch pine has been 
planted, so that the result is a pretty New England trout stream bordered 
by trees 50 feet in height. This illustrates the two great principles in the 
control of erosion: first, to stop the earth from moving as a whole and, 
second, to cover it with shrubs, nurse trees, and forest. 

TYPICAL REFORESTATION AREAS 

Regions. — To give a picture of the conditions in the principal regions, 
important reforestation areas (see Fig. 14, c) in the Alpes, sub-Alpes, Cen- 
tral Plateau, Cevennes, and Pyrenees are described in considerable detail, 
the material being furnished in the official report, " Restauration et Con- 
servation des Terrains en Montague." The routine and systematic 
descriptions (given in the Appendix, p. 422) of the conditions following 
erosion, and the tedious difficulty (see Fig. 14, c) of stopping the damage, 
emphasize the dangers and costs of overgrazing and deforestation. 



CHAPTER VIII 
FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

The Dunes (p. 169). Introduction, Kinds of Dunes (Causes), Rate of Advance, 
Local Conditions. 

History of Reclaiming the Landes (p. 173). Periods of Work, Before Bremontier, 
The Bremontier Period, The Dune Commission, The Bridge and Road Service, Waters 
and Forests Service, Statistics. 

Fixing the Sand (p. 177). Construction of Coast Dunes, Forestation, Special 
Betterments in the Landes, Cost and Price Data. 

Management of Maritime Pine Forests (p. 186). Objects of Management 
(Protection Forests), Silvicultural Systems, Intermediate Fellings, Rotations, Felhng 
Cycles, Working Groups, New Tapping Scheme, Tapping Other Species, Resin Sales, 
French Tools for Tapping and Their Use, French and American Methods Contrasted, 
Technique of Tapping, Effect of Tapping, Utihzation, Logging and Local Specifications, 
Yield of Maritime Pine, Protection. 

THE DUNES 

Introduction. — The reclamation and forestation of the sand wastes of 
the Landes and Gironde between Bayonne and the Garonne River 
(north of Bordeaux) is perhaps the best possible illustration of the bene- 
fits of forestry to the individual, to the community, and to the nation. 
The individual who pioneered in sowing these sands made a handsome 
profit, the communities were saved from obliteration by the encroach- 
ment of the sand dunes and, after being bankrupt, became rich, and lastly 
France found itself sovereign of departments producing handsome 
revenues instead of having to furnish them assistance. Before foresta- 
tion the Landes was populated with a shiftless class of "poor whites" 
eking out a livelihood. To-day it is one of the most progressive and per- 
haps the most prosperous region in France, with good schools, splendid 
churches, and up-to-date communal buildings. Nor should the indirect 
benefits of this work be overlooked; a region formerly fever-stricken be- 
came healthy, and to-day places like Arcachon and Mimizan are health 
resorts both in summer and winter. Much of this land was sand, worth- 
less for agriculture and mediocre for grazing, but nevertheless an ideal 
soil for the rapidly growing, resin producing maritime pine. Bremontier, 
a great engineer and believer in forestry, was able to put the work of 
stabilizing the dunes and forestation on a sound basis during the years 
1787 to 1817 and the problem was solved during his administration. He 
proved to the canny French that the work was sound financially. The 

169 



170 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

parallel between the so-called sand wastes of the southern United States 
and the great Landes region in southern France is most striking. What 
has been accomphshed in the Landes? In place of virtually worthless 
fever-stricken land the French have a balance sheet of: (1) Revenue 
producing forests, protected from fire; (2) a protection for such important 
industries as agriculture; (3) a needed supply of timber/ mine props, and 
resin products; (4) a healthy land to Hve in and largely increased popu- 
lation. 

Is it to be wondered at that the French Chamber of Deputies has de- 
clared that producing forests are of paramount necessity to the nation 
and insist on their perpetuation, or that reforested land of this class 
should be exempted from taxation for thirty years? But it should be 
noted that the French Government itself took the initiative financially 
and technically in the reclamation and sowing of the Landes; it blazed 
the trail for the private owner. 

The Landes is a. triangular area of some 1,977,000 acres- bounded by 
the Atlantic Ocean and the three rivers, Garonne, Midouze, and Adour. 
Three-quarters of a century ago this was mostly an unhealthy sand 
waste of swamp land, ponds, brush, and limited scrubby stands of 
maritime pine and a scattering of oak with other broadleaves. There 
was no system of roads and the chief industry was sheep and goat graz- 
ing. As early as 1737 the reclamation of this waste land was under 
consideration, but only after Chambrelent and Bremontier had shown 
that drainage and forestation was practicable did the State secure the 
law of 1857 which provided for the (a) drainage of communal land and 
(6) the construction of a system of roads to feed the areas drained and 
forested. Without these betterments the continued forestation on a 
large scale would have been well-nigh impossible. 

The drainage was finished in 1865 and cost only $172,484 to drain 
468,767 acres (which had been purchased from the communes), and by 
1860 $1,238,095 had been spent on roads. The communes had forested 
183,000 acres by 1891 (or three-fourths the waste area they owned) and 
the forestation of private land had not lagged behind. It should be 
emphasized that to-day the State and communal forests under working 
plans occupy the poorer sands on the dunes almost entirely on a strip 
within four miles of the ocean. They form protection belts for the richer 
private forests and agricultural land which is found on the better soils 
inland. The system of management described later in this chapter 

1 The principal exploitations of the American Forest Engineers, A. E. F., were in 
the Landes south of Bordeaux. They cut 41.4 million board feet. Major Swift Berry, 
who was stationed in the Landes for two years, kindly reviewed this chapter and made 
many valuable suggestions which were incorporated in the text. 

2 Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 177-184. 



KINDS OF DUNES (CAUSES) 



171 



applies to public forests under working plans. The distinction between 
public and private management is described on page 186. The State 
and communal forests thus lie mostly in the dunes and the private forests 
in the level Landes behind the dune region. 

Kinds of Dunes (Causes). — The maritime dunes of France are formed 
of sand usually drifted from the ocean or occasionally from the beds of 
rivers near the sea. The sand dries out on the beach or river bed at 
low tide and is blown inland. The normal dune is entirely a natural 
phenomenon, but its movement far inland is usually caused and accentu- 
ated by the destruction of bordering forests and soil cover. Huff el ^ says : 




Fig. 15. — Protection dune at Lacanau-Ocean in State forest of Lacanau (Gironde). 
The sand is held in place by planting maram grass on the wind-swept dunes. 

"Two kinds of dunes are found on the shores of Gascony: (1) Recent new dunes 
which were fixed during the last century; (2) very old (prehistoric) ones, known locall}' 
by the name of viountains, which are still covered to-day with very old forests of pine, 
hve oak and cork oak. These mountains do not form (as the recent dunes do) chains 
of ridges separated by little ravines parallel to the shore; their confused grouping tends 
to show that they formed at a period when the shore line was not so remarkably straight, 
as it became in recent times, under the action of the north-south currents." 

These recent dunes * may be of three kinds: (1) High dunes; (2) flat 

3 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 152. 

* Notes sur les Dunes de Gascogne, par J. Bert, 1900, which has been largely followed 
in tracing the history and development of the dune reclamation work. River sand in 
the dunes probably comes down into the Bay of Biscay from the streams of the Pyre- 
nees and is then, according to Major Berry's conclusions, thrown up on the beaches. 



172 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

dunes; and (3) scattered dunes. Types (1) and (2) requii^e no further 
elaboration. Type (3) are dunes where the sand had formed irregu- 
lar banks or mounds on adjacent level areas. Near the ocean the western 
slope (facing the sea) is 4 to 25 per cent and the eastern slope 7 to 75 
per cent. Dunes are rarely more than 200 feet high, the maximum 
height being 292 feet in the forest of Biscarrosse. See figure 15. 

Rate of Advance. — The ends of a dune usually advance more rapidly 
than the center, but the ridges are about parallel to the beach and at 
right angles to the wind. They are irregular and form mounds of various 
shapes. The rate of advance inland has been estimated at from 33 to 
164 feet per year, depending unquestionably on the wind and on the 
local topography. The average is probably 65 to 80 feet per year. 
There is another phenomenon connected with the dunes — the erosion 
of the shore line by the sea. According to my field notes : 

"At La Teste, during the period 1886 to 1912, the sea has eaten away 2,231 feet of 
shore dunes opposite the ranger house at Gaillouneys, and at the ranger station of La 
Sallie 623 feet has been eroded between 1886 and 1912 (86 and 24 feet per year)." 

It appears reasonably certain that the forest of Biscarrosse (partly 
logged by the American E. F. in 1918) extended to the ocean in the 
13th century. Huffel ^ finds no reference to moving sand prior to 1580 
when Montaigne wrote: "Along the ocean in Medoc my brother, le 
sieur d'Arzac, saw his land covered with sand that the sea vomited over 
it . . . the inhabitants say that for some time . . . they have 
lost four leagues of land." ^ A ''Heve" of land was about 4.4 kilometers 
or 2.7 miles. If this is correct it might be argued that the destructive 
action of moving sand in France dates from about the year 1200 if the 
land was covered for 4 leagues inland (17.7 kilometers or 11 miles) at 
the rate of 50 meters (164 feet) a year. But this is only conjecture. 

Local Conditions. — There are fresh water ponds between the dunes 
from the Gironde to the Adour. Only one of these (Arcachon) is con- 
nected with the sea so as to form a bay. The average elevation of these 
ponds varies from 39 to 59 feet (Hourtin and Lacanau) and from 6 to 19 
feet (Soustons). These ponds are typical of the dune region and are 
responsible to a large extent for the unhealthy climate of the region 
prior to the systematic drainage undertaken by the State. The water 

5 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 153. 

6 That the area from Biscarrosse north to the Etang of Cazeau has been forested 
for a long period is evidenced by ancient vested rights which permit residents of the 
community to cut trees for fuel and construction. It was originally one estate, but has 
since been divided through heirs into a multitude of holdings. The owners can take 
the resin but have no right to cut the trees. The portion logged by the A. E. F. was 
on the newer dunes planted by the French Government, and possibly a httle farther 
south than the old forest. 



PERIODS OF WORK 173 

hollows (lettes) between the dunes were also a source of fever. In 
former days there was considerable cattle, sheep, and goat grazing 
which did a great deal of damage. According to Bert : 

"After the execution of the first work, the water holes between the dunes furnished 
quite good drainage ground for some time. But because of the drying action of the 
pine, the grass production disappeared httle by httle; the grazing in the region of the 
dunes became practically of no value." 

This has had an important bearing on the attitude of the communes, 
since the restocking of the sand areas often meant the physical oblitera- 
tion of their grazing, and because grazing was often disastrous to the 
artificial forestation and had to be curtailed or forbidden altogether. 
Bert says: 

"One of the most important problems confronting the Dune Commission was the 
ownership of the land. The dunes were evidently regarded as belonging to the State 
and the forestation was certainly alluded to at that time as belonging to the Nation, 
to the republic, to the Government, and as royal property. If this private property, 
whether belonging to individuals or to communes, had been left to shift for itself it 
certainly would have been lost to the Nation. But possibly a great deal of trouble 
would have been avoided if the land, then worthless, had been exappropriated at its 
actual sale value instead of being merely sown or planted by the State after having been 
abandoned by its original owners. It is significant that one or two owners in after 
years had their lands returned to them upon payment, with interest, of the cost of 
forestation. On account of the damage done by grazing these private rights were 
gradually extinguished by purchase by the State." 

This is similar to the policy now followed in the Alps (see p. 143). 

The climatic conditions are favorable to the growth of maritime pine 
since the extremes of temperature are 3° and 23° C. (37.4° and 73.4° F.) 
for cold and heat, the average rainfall 31 inches, and the average number 
of rainy days 200. An unfavorable climatic factor, which is often dis- 
astrous but which can be alleviated by shelter belts, is the violent west 
winds so typical of the region (see p. 204, " Fire Protection "). According 
to my field notes: 

"In the vicinity of the Lacanau Ocean (forest of Lacanau) the average tempera- 
ture throughout the year is 13° 54' C. (.56.3° F.); in summer the average is 20° 48' C. 
(68 .9° F.), and in autumn 13° 32' C. (56.3° F.). There are 102 clear days annuaUy, 
with a rainfall of 32 inches, coupled with frequent fogs. Violent west and southwest 
winds are very frequent." 

These violent winds made the fixation of the sand all the more difficult. 
The main dune area (see p. 177 for statistics) is between the Gironde 
and Adour rivers in a strip 3 to 4 miles wide and 145 miles in length. 

HISTORY OF RECLAIMING THE LANDES 
Periods of Work. — Five periods ^ are distinguished in the develop- 
ment and reclamation of the dunes : 

^Bert, id. (seep. 171). 



174 l'X)RESTRV IN Till': LANDES 

1. Tho groping of those who \nccvi\vi\ Hromontier, 1734-1786. 

2. Bromontier himself, 1 787-1 79o (with interim). 

3. The Dune Commission, 1801 1817. 

4. Administration of the Bridge and Road Service, 1817 18G2. 

5. The Waters and Forest Service, 1862 on. 

(1) Before Bremontier. — Before Br^montier's time, a number of 
persons had suggested the possibility of reclaiming the dunes and pre- 
venting the disasters caused by the advancing sand. Kollowing a dis- 
astrous fire in the forest of Teste in 1716 the forest was resown by its 
connnunal owners in 1717, although there is a possilnlity that the records 
are inacruiatc and that the sowing was natural rather than artificial. 
De Buat, a member of the Bordeaux Parliament, argued in 177(5 that it 
was perfectly practicable (o sow the dunes, and on JNlarch 23, 1770, a 
decree in council accorded luni pt>i|)etual ownership of a concession in the 
Teste region if ht> woulil reforest the area and prevent the sand from 
fintluM- encroacluuent. He had to pay, as purchase price, two pounds 
ol wheal for each acre. Dosbiey, former receiver at Teste, on the 25th 
of August, 1774, presented a statement to the Academy of ScicMices at 
Bordeaux arguing that tho sowing of tlu> lUmes was entirely practicable. 
In 1779, De NIIUm-s wrote a special r(>|)oit on the possibility of fixing the 
Cascogne dunes. In 1778 1779 a lonunission studying the dune problem 
proposed interior plantations of ti(>cs, with plantations of genista ami 
little bundles of straw held in phu'c by stakes to hold the genista in place. 
Acct>i(ling to Bert: 

■'!( thoivforo appt'Mfs certain that tho methods of sowing and fixing (hmos were 
kimwii l>t"rort> the tirst cxpcrinxMits ol' liivnionticr. They had luvn applied to a cer- 
tain extent by I'eyehan, taUeii aecimiit of !>> l>e l\uat, and desi'rilx'd l>\ t)e N'illers." 

Tassin made some claims of originating tiie dune protective work 
but, apparently, in the words of Bremontier: 

■■ llt> told nie positively that my stnviii^ and plantation of tl\(> dunes woulil nt>ver 
have heon considered except as a brilliant theory which it is impossible to luakt' 
practicrtl use of." 

Bremontier's ** credit for this great rechunation work rests on his 
devotion, activity, persistence, and clearness of vision rather than on 
an origination of ideas or inetlioils. lie was tht> man "to put it across." 

» According to the Indian Forester, p. 415, Vol. 21, 1895, Jvdy 10, history lias piven 
Bromontier the credit for being the father of dune reclamation in France, but it is 
ct>rtain that there was considerable sowini;; on the dunes before Bremontier's time. 
In 1734 Alaire ile Bust planted or sowed i>ine anil i>ak on the dimes. In 1779 this work 
was continueil by De Rust's grandson, but owing to tires the experiment was not suc- 
cessful. In 1778 the Comte de Mont .\usier presented a petition to the King to under- 
take ilune reclamation, but at that time it was deelareil illegal. In 1777 Desbiey 



PERIODS OF WORK 175 

(2) The Bremontier Period. — Following the study of drainage in 
the Landes, completed in 1773, the Controller General, by letter dated 
September 20, 1786, put at the disposition of the proper authorities 
"the sum of 50,000 livres (about $9,650) to be employed in works aimed 
at assuring the execution of a canal in the Landes and of finding efficacious 
means of fixing the dunes." 

This work was assigned to Bremontier who, in turn, appointed Pey- 
chan, of Teste, who had taken charge of the sowing of the water hollows 
between the dunes for De Ruat. The earliest important document 
signed ''Bremontier" is dated September 28, 1781, wherein he calls 
attention to the necessity of having 90,000 livres (about $17,370) to 
assure the maintenance of local roads. According to the Memoir of 
De Villers dated 1779: 

"Work was commenced near the sea at a point above the high tides in order to stop 
the sand in the areas planted, protect these parts by layers of wattle work or fascines, 
scattering the pine seed evenly over the ground with acorns here and there and a quan- 
tity of bush and plant seeds in order to fix the sand in place. The furze, genista and 
maram grass appear especially suitable to accomplish this object." 

On the 21st of April, 1797, Bremontier sent Peychan, who was in 
charge of the experimental work at Teste, specific directions which did 
not mention the use of genista, furze, or maram grass seed recommended 
by De Villers, but, nevertheless, Peychan mixed the genista seed with 
that of the pine, and since then it has been recognized that the mixture 
was indispensable. The work began March 12, 1787, and in 1793 
practically the whole amount appropriated had been spent. Peychan 
was succeeded by Dejean as Inspector of Works. 

(3) The Dune Commission. — The Dune Commission, 1801-1817, on 
the recommendation of Bremontier, was appointed August 5, 1801, after 
a lapse of some years following Bremontier's first experimental work. 
The commission was composed of the Prefect of the Gironde; Du Bois; 
Bremontier, Engineer-in-Chief; Guyet-Laparde, Conservator of Forests; 
and three scientists from a Bordeaux society. Bremontier was the 

wrote a paper on the sowing of pine seed. In 1778 the engineer Baron de Villers was 
sent by Louis XVI to study the question of dune reclamation with special reference 
to the harbor at Arcachon. He recommended in his report the sowing of pine seed 
and that the seed must be prevented from being blown away, and he solicited a trial 
of the system. In 1784 Bremontier was set to carry on this experiment, being aided 
by a private landowner named Peychan. This gentleman had previously made several 
successfiol attempts and he had covered the seed with branches to prevent it from 
being blown away. In 1787 Bremontier began the work of dune forestation, but the 
first experiments were failures, since he refused to use the Peychan method of covering 
the soil with branches to prevent damage by wind. In 1802 Bremontier's enterprise 
can really be said to have been successfully started and to be inaugurated as a success- 
ful project. 



176 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

ruling genius of the commission until he was appointed Inspector General 
of Roads and Bridges at Paris. He claimed that the cost would not be 
more than 4,000,000 livres (about $772,000). 

In 1804 the new Inspector of Dune Work, Dejean, covered the sowing 
with branches with the ends stuck about 4 inches in the sand, using 
heather, genista, and furze, as well as tamerisk and pine branches. 
In the same year he was able to report that the trees sown in 1788 and 
1789 at Teste (Gironde) produced 2,196 pounds of resin and that many 
trees had reached 12 inches in diameter at the end of 14 or 15 years, 
while in the Landes 30 years is necessary to reach the same size. On 
September 17, 1808, the first public auction was held by the Forest 
Service agents to sell resin and turpentine secured from reforested areas. 
The cost in 1807 was about $9.26 per acre but varied considerably (see 
p. 183). In 1810 locust, chestnut, poplar, and oak were planted with 
some success. 

(4) Bridge and Road Service. — The administration by the Bridge 
and Road Service, 1817-1862, followed the commission form of adminis- 
tration which had established the methods of sowing, regulated the pro- 
ductions of the sown areas, and had practically solved the question 
of ownership. The principle of an artificial dune was described by 
Bremontier as early as 1787, but the first work of this kind was under- 
taken some years later by the Forest Service which was able to suc- 
cessfully stop the sand. The permanent administration of these areas 
and the continuance of the work, however, i-equired a stable organization, 
and the commission was therefore terminated in 1817, the work being 
turned over to the Bridge and Road Service. At that time the Forest 
Service was in bad odor and could not count on the liberality of appro- 
priations which the Bridge and Road Service could secure. 

(5) Waters and Forest Service. — As the stands began to mature it 
was increasingly difficult to keep distinct the work of the Forest Service 
and that of the Bridge and Road Service which, until 1862, had charge 
of the reclaimed areas. The engineering details of barrier dunes and 
drainage had been solved so the main problem was to protect and manage 
the forests. It was therefore entirely logical to turn the entire forestry 
work over to trained foresters, which was done in 1862. This organiza- 
tion is still in charge. 

Statistics. — Huffel ^ says there are the following maritime dunes in 

France : 

9 Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 149-150. 



CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 
TABLE 18.— AREA OF FRENCH DUNES 



177 



Departments 


Area in acres 


Main ownership 


Nord-Somme 


30,147 

3,954 

33,606 

1° 252,046 

2,422 


Private 


Finistere, Morbihan 


Two-thirds private, one-third State 

State 

One-half State, one-half private or 

communal 
Private 


Loire-Inf., Vendee, Charente-Inf. 
Gironde, Landes 

Departments on Mediterranean. . 


Totals for France 


322,175 


One-half private, one-half State 



The dune areas in the Gironde and Landes are about equal. The 
maritime pine covers a large area outside the dunes. There is a total 
forest of 1,656,630 acres in the Lot-et-Garonne, Landes, and Gironde 
divided as follows: 

Ownership Acres 

Private and communal forest 1,510,549 

Communal forest under State control 17,411 

State forest 128,670 

1,656,630 

By 1899 there were 140 miles of artificial barrier dunes in the Landes 
and Gironde Departments alone, the first barrier dune having been 
constructed in 1833 (see p. 178). 

FIXING THE SAND 

Construction of Coast Dunes. — It has already been seen that the 
ocean sand, if unchecked, drifts inland and submerges everything of 
value in its path. The theory of fixing or stabihzing the sand is to secure 
and maintain the following conditions. 

Desired conditions Objective 

Gradual shelving beach ... To allow the waves to break their force without eroding or 

washing the dry sand. 

Barrier dune To dam the drifting sand. 

Grass or vegetable cover . . To maintain the sand in place on and around the barrier 

dune. (See Fig. 15.) 
Forest protection belt To help maintain the sand in place and to protect the 

merchantable stands from the effects of the wind. 

The underlying principle is as follows: ^^ 

"Every fixation system is founded on the following principle: In the mass of bare sand 
susceptible of being eroded by the wind, the transport takes place grain by grain. . . . 

"This is substantially the same area as was reported in 1822; in 1800 Bremontier 
had estimated it at 271,815 acres and at over 281,420 acres in 1803, while Villers had 
grossly overestimated the area in 1779 at 878,913 acres. 

" Boppe, pp. 478-481. 



178 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

Therefore, if the displacement of the surface particles can be stopped there is nothing 
to fear regarding those underneath, and the entire mass is fixed. 

"The method consists in sowing the maritime pine under cover. It is to a land- 
owner at Teste, Pierre Peychan — often known as Maitre Pierre — that we owe this 
method, both simple and practical, about which he advised Bremontier, and which we 
still use almost without modification. 

"To keep the seed from being buried by the sand a cover of brush is laid over the 
entire surface seeded. This precaution is necessary not only for holding the seed but 
also for protecting the young plants against the action of the moving sand; for the 
moving crest of particles, projected without and against the growing stems, wears 
them out to a point when they fall over; being no longer able to hold up their heads, 
most of them would thus die. In practice, bundles of fagots up to 1,000 per acre are 
scattered over the area to be forested. These fagots are 3.3 feet in circumference 
measured on the withe and 4.3 in length. For their manufacture the gorze (ajouc) is 
the species preferred; then comes the genista (genet), then the heather, tree heathers, 
the ronches (reed of fresh water marshes), and pine branches; but these latter have 
the disadvantage that too often under cover, cryptogamic diseases break out. The 
thorns, briars, ferns, and Ught woods do not protect the soil sufficiently. . . . 

"Immediately after the sowing of the seed the areas sown are covered over, or better 
still, the two operations are carried out at the same time. The brush is placed as you 
proceed toward the sea, the large ends facing (the sea) and the branches of each tier 
covering the base of those which proceed them. Then in order to keep this cover in 
place, the workmen put good sized (pelletees) sand on the portions Avhere no seed has 
been sown and spread it on the outstretched branches, about 12 inches apart, measur- 
ing from the centers. The sole improvement made on the system of Pierre Peychan 
and Bremontier is that of fixing the cover in place by means of small poles placed across 
and held down by notched stakes driven into the sand." 

At the end of the day's work the last row is securely fixed so any wind storm will not 
wreck the work already done. 

"To sum up, it is really a dead cover which has been placed on the soil. But it 
would not last indefinitely, it is but the beginning to be followed by a living cover 
which will carry on its role." 

Otherwise the sand coming from the ocean would be blown landward 
and would continue to cover the areas which had been reforested. There- 
fore to start with: 

". . . There 12 was established above high tide at a distance of 100 to 165 feet a 
wattle work fence or pahsade. As the new sand drifted in front of this obstacle a 
part passed through the spaces between the planks or the wattle work holes and banked 
up behind. Little by little the sand rose and covered the palisade which was then 
gradually raised until the dune was 33 or 49 feet above the the level of the sea." 

When the proper height was attained, the sand was planted to maram 
grass in order that it might be held in place. Once it was fixed in this 
manner it had to he maintained, since with every storm there were areas 
to be repaired. (See Fig. 15.) 

"In 1858 1^ there were 17 consecutive days of storm; the littoral line was broken at 
several points and it was impossible to repair it with sufficient rapidity. More than 
$9,650 damage to sown areas was done in the Department of the Landes alone." 

'2 Les Landes et les Dunes de Gascogne, par. ch. Grandjean, Paris, 1897. 
i^Boppe, pp. 471-481. 



CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 179 

According to Grand jean : 

" In the Gironde the palisade was established quite close to high tides . . . but in 
the Landes on the contrary it was 490 feet from high tide. This palisade having been 
successively raised until the dune attained an elevation of 20 to 26 feet and the talus 
becoming too steep they estabUshed (5 feet to the west) a cordon of fagots at the foot 
of the talus." 

This lessened the steepness of the slope and was an excellent modifica- 
tion. The tendency has been to build the artificial dunes farther from 
the sea, up to 820 to 980 feet. In 1851 the artificial barrier or coast dune 
was constructed as follows: 

"At 165 to 260 feet from the high tide mark, parallel to the shore that is to-day per- 
pendicular to the direction of the wind, a palisade is built of joists 4.7 inches wide and 
1.2 inches thick; these joists are deeply imbedded in the sand with a projection of 3.3 feet 
above the soil; they are spaced 0.8 to 1.2 inches from each other. After each storm 
the sand, driven by the wind, accumulates in front of the palisade and piles up on the 
other side through the spaces left between the joists; according to the size of the particles 
the equilibrium between the piles on the two sides is more or less readily established. 
This operation is repeated until the artificial dune is 33 to 39 feet high above high tide. 
The theory of this method is that the wind is harnessed by man to do his work. The 
slope is quite rapid on the talus facing the sea and the best grade or relief is always an 
important problem which must be studied locally. The surface is fixed with maram 
grass (gourbet, calam agrastis arenacea) secured by sowing or by root suckers. The 
maintenance work consists chiefly of repairing the breeches made by the sea or wind." 

To-day the profile of these artificial dunes is being reversed, and the 
slopes are gently inclining toward the sea and abrupt on the land side, 
since it has been found by experiment that this gives better results. 

"This new profile is secured by placing (parallel to the shore) successive lines of little 
hedges about 24 inches in height built of pine branches at the foot of which the sand 
accumulates. The skill consists, according to the form of the shore line and the prog- 
ress of the sand, in placing these obstacles at the desired point to assist the dune to 
form its ridge line at such a distance from the shore that the slope can extend on the 
most practical incline. These very cordons, coupled with the maram grass sowing 
without a branch cover, can stop and hold in check the 'whistle-wind' and the ravines 
that the wind bores in the dune. . . . 

"Moreover, it is marvelous to see how experienced foresters know how to use the 
growth to model the dune sand, something so mobile and capricious; where the (de- 
sired) profile has been secured they use the maram grass to fix these points, or on the 
contrary, pull out or thin the plant when they wish the wind to remove the piles of sand 
or mounds which have become useless or troublesome. Frequently hedges parallel 
to the coast are flanked with dikes whose direction is perpendicular to them, when these 
can be further subdivided into crow's feet or reverse dikes. 

"When winding shores with sharp points are exposed to very violent wind, a care- 
ful study of the situation only can determine the places where defense work must be 
established, and what direction to give them. . . . Finally, on points where the sea 
in eroding its shores and breaks into waves without depositing sand the material be- 
comes scarce . . . the force of the waves is reduced by the erection of a forest of solid 
stakes driven into the sand and called break-water (brise-lame) . The tamerisk, with 
its long flexible branches, renders the greatest service in consohdating aU these dead 



180 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

works by a live growth. At the same time they try to replace the former profile out- 
lined by the caprice of the waves by a suitable artificial beach with a grade as low as 
5 or 6 per cent, so that the wave can roll in, losing its power of erosion. Moreover, 
each point demands a special solution. ... In fact the final dune profile is not yet 
discovered; perhaps it will never be." 

At Lacanau they began the artificial slope of the protective dune at 
33 feet from high tide and extended it 148 feet to where the palisade 
originally stood. The protective dune was 52 feet high and 13 feet wide 
(across the top) with sand barriers at each side of the top. The dune 
then sloped gradually to a bench 164 feet farther back; perhaps about 
65 feet farther on the lowest point was reached and the sand rose again 
to another dune where the protective pine zone began. 

At Lacanau there were four kinds of barriers against sand erosion: 
(1) To prevent the erosion of the tops of barrier dunes upright stakes 
were placed 1.6 feet apart, 1.3 feet in height, with interwoven branches 
and genista to prevent the sand from sifting through. Here the 
ordinary palisades had been abandoned because the natural method 
just described is considered cheaper to maintain when once the protective 
dune is raised to the proper height by use of the palisade method. Here 
the artificial dunes were 52 feet in height. (2) To protect the rear of the 
protective dune rows of genista 2.3 feet high were sunk 1.1 to 1.3 feet in 
the soil. This resulted in keeping the rear of the protective dune to the 
proper height. (3) To hold the sand branches were laid on the sand to 
prevent wind erosion. (4) To hold and build up areas where the sand 
had been excavated by the wind near the ocean clumps of genista 1.6 
feet in circumference were planted in quincunx. The French specifica- 
tions for the ''Fixation and Maintenance of Dunes" is given on page 429 
of the Appendix. This gives a very minute and accurate account of the 
methods now in use. According to Lafond:^^ 

"The littoral dune is the best defense in the dune region. If it is abandoned or if 
its maintenance is not kept up, new natural dunes invariably form and, blown by the 
wind, cover successively not only the forests created at great expense but afterwards 
additional country." 

North of Bordeaux the protective dune seems to have assumed special 
importance. Parallel to the ocean and at a distance of about 656 feet 
from high tide a plank^^ palisade, formed of planks 8 inches wide and 
spaced 1.2 inches is sunk in the sand. As soon as the sand accumulates, 
as in other dune regions, the palisade is raised about 31 inches. After 
the dune has once been formed it is of course planted to maram grass. 

" Fixation des Dunes, par M. A. Lafond, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1900. 

1^ Frequently ordinary wattle work made of sticks 6.5 feet long and 2.5 inches in 
diameter sunk 1.6 feet in the sand and 1.6 feet apart is used. These pieces are then 
woven with branches and shrubs to a point 1.6 feet alcove the sand level. 



CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 181 

The height of the artificial dunes in this region is usually 33 feet. Lafond 
says : 

"If higher, they cost much more to estabhsh and are more difficult to maintain, and 
they give more of a lever to the winds, moreover, if they are built too high. Usually 
a lower height is sufficient." 

From Point Arvert to Point Coubre (Charente Inferieure Department) 
the height of the artificial dune is usually 23 feet. At Requin it is 
extremely variable, being from 6.5 to 65 feet, and at Volcan 43 feet. From 
the Tournegand Canal to Palmyre it is 16 feet in height and from there 
on to the Grande-Cote it is but 13 feet. Tkis shows how the height of the 
artificial dune must vary ivith the local conditions. 

The destruction of these littoral dunes comes either from the wind or 
from the sea. The wind is the commonest danger but the sea the most 
difficult to combat. According to Lafond: 

" A littoral dune not too high and bordering a permanent beach is on the whole 
easy to maintain. It is sufficient to keep the maram grass plantation (executed at the 
time of construction) in good condition and to maintain its original density on the 
different parts of the dune surface; the beach sand blown by the wind slides along the 
dune where it is scattered as nourishment for the clumps of maram grass. The ex- 
cess amount passes behind the dune and is scattered in the littoral hollows (ledes). 
It does not cause any damage, however, because it is only a small amount and covers 
the soil so slowly that the brush or shrubs can grow as fast as the sand covers the soil 
and also keeps it fixed." 

It is not nearly so easy to maintain a high protective dune at Coubre. 
Here the sand accumulates at certain points and forms hummocks which 
must be fixed immediately. " The formation of hummocks is avoided 
by not allowing the maram grass bunches to grow too thick and by 
removing every obstacle on the dune." 

If hummocks of sand are formed their summit has to be broken so 
as to make the sand mobile and allow the winds to blow it away. If 
these irregularities can be avoided then, so far as the wind is concerned, 
the artificial dune can maintain itself. 

Lafond says a dune can always be kept in good condition by means of 
maram grass plantations judiciously placed so as to hold the sand in the 
depressions and let it blow over the humps so as to have nothing but 
regular slopes or long undulations. 

When the littoral dune is washed by the waves during storms it usually 
suffices to build barriers to retain the sand in place and permit it to re- 
sume its original shape. 

"If the breech is quite considerable, to smooth it over the sand is topped by means 
of fagots planted in quincunx; often these quincunx are placed in two barrier lines, 
the one completing the action of the other. Where the erosion by the water is caused 
by dangerous currents then it is a very serious undertaking and masonry or expensive 
cement work is often necessary." 



182 • FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

Lafond describes in great detail special problems caused by the action 
of the ocean currents. 

Fore station. ^^ — It has been seen that the first step is to make sure that 
the protection dunes are stable, and that the first essential is to sow or 
plant maram grass on the slopes toward the sea about 60 to 70 feet from 
high tide. It is usually planted in November to February since, if planted 
later after the rains have ceased, it is apt to die. It is dug up from maram 
bunches (which are too thick) and usually six to eight shoots are planted 
at one place. It is cut 8 inches below the soil when collected and is 
dibbled 12 inches deep in the sand; it is spaced 31 inches apart near the 
sea and farther back 20 inches. This wider spacing near the ocean is 
because it needs plenty of fresh sand in order to thrive, yet inversely if it 
is covered with too much sand it dies out and must be replanted. 

The next step is to sow the maritime pine coming back to the barrier 
dune. 

According to a report published in 1834 the method of sowing was as 
follows : 

"Pine seed, mixed with genista, furze, or maram grass was used for sowing in the 
littoral zone. It was covered with branches of genista, furze, or pine according to the 
locality. . . . These branches were laid flat and placed as if they were ferns. . . . 
They were held in place on the soil with a little sand (thrown broadcast)." 

The methods have remained about the same. According to the in- 
structions of May 16, 1888, 9 pounds of pine per acre with 8 pounds of 
genista or 9 pounds of maram grass pure were used; in either case it 
took 400 fagots of 44 pounds each for the covering. 

The present method of sowing takes about 18 pounds of seed ^^ per 
acre of maritime pine, 1.8 of genista, and 1.8 of maram grass. The 
tendency is to sow too densely. The correct method of sowing means 
scattering the seed, theoretically about 1 to 2 inches apart. The seed 
is then covered with branches held down by sand. The cover is abso- 
lutely essential so that the sand will not burn the seed and so that the 
surface will not blow. A second method is by holes 4 inches deep and 
20 inches apart, covered mth genista and held down with sand. A 
third method now used is sowing in ditches 8 inches deep and 8 inches 
wide. These are then covered with sand and with a light brush cover. 
For dry locaHties the best time to sow is in October but for wet localities 
in March. When maritime pine is occasionally planted wild stock is 
used. According to Boppe (already cited) : 

1^ The land tax on forested land on mountains, dunes, or waste land is exempt for 
thirty years; three-fourths the land tax is remitted on any cleared soil that is afterwards 
planted. 

" Maritime cones are collected from January 1 to March 1. Genista seed is collected 
in June and July and thrashed the end of July; maram grass is collected in August. 



COST AND PRICE DATA 183 

"For this purpose, instead of using pure maritime pine seed, the following mixture 
is sown per acre: Maritime pine, 26 pounds; furze, 2.6 pounds; genista, 2.6 pounds; 
maram grass, 2.6 pounds; miscellaneous seed to attract birds, 2.6 pounds. This for- 
mula is used in the Coubre Dune. In the Landes practice the maritime pine is re- 
duced to 9 pounds per acre, while the genista is increased to 8 and the maram grass to 
3.5 pounds. 

"The pine, the genista, and the furze come up simultaneously, and it is usually 
noted that the pines are better if the necessary seedhngs are more numerous, moreover 
the cover rots where it lies and gives the soil its first supply of organic material. When 
the forestation is commenced at the very base of the dune the first stands estabhshed 
for a distance of 660 to 980 feet damaged by the ocean winds usually remain stunted 
and crooked; but under cover of this protective zone the stands which follow it de- 
velop normally; it is even stated that the pines on a dune yield more resin than those 
growing on (ordinary) ground." 

Special Betterments in the Landes. — Next to the fixation of the sand 
and the drainage work one of the greatest problems in the Landes has 
been road construction, since paved roads have proved extremely expen- 
sive. It is for this reason that narrow-gauge railroads are so popular 
when a large area is to be worked. A special kind of wagon road is 
built of wood blocks 14 by 4 inches laid vertically. The usual dune 
road is the so-called "paillage." Such roads are 8.8 to 6.5 feet in width 
and the sand is dug out to a depth of 4^ inches and thrown to one side. 
Then twigs and branches are placed in the bottom and a cover of pine 
needles and moss placed on top. Roads of this type are confined largely 
to the dunes or pure sand areas. All main roads in the flat Landes are 
macadamized and the others are dirt roads, sometimes covered with 
needles. 

Cost and Price Data. — ■ Bremontier's original estimate for the dune ^^ 
control and forestation was about $772,000 (see p. 170). The final cost^^ 
of reclaiming 195,212 acres totaled $1,854,344 or $9.50 per acre. In 
addition $656,200 was spent on maintenance of roads, forest houses, fire 
lines, and barrier dunes, making a grand total of 2| million dollars. 
But just as Bremontier predicted, the annual revenue from this land, 
which would otherwise have been worthless, is more than the original 
amount spent. According to Huffel ^^ the total Dune and Landes pine 
forest (including State, communal, and private) comprised 1,611,121 
acres which represents an investment of $10,331,290 on the following 
basis : 

18 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 159. 

1^ Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 182-183. The average costs are low because of the partial use 
of natural regeneration after the original dune forestation had been completed; this 
explains the difference between $9.50, $10.75 and $4.25 per acre. 



184 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

Totals 
74,131.3 acres of dunes reforested by the State at a cost of 

$10.75+ per acre $926,400 

1,536,989.3 acres of private and communal interior holdings 

forested at $4.25- per acre 6,602,530 

1,611,121 acres of soil at a cost of $0.77+ per acre 1,258,360 

$8,787,290 
Road betterments 1,544,000 

$10,331,290 

This is equal to an average investment of only $6,41 per acre. A con- 
servative estimate of yield, before the war, was $2.22 per acre per year. 
Thus if taxation is eliminated the original investment yields over 30 
per cent as a national "speculation," but it must be noted that the real 
soil value was almost nothing at the time the investment was made. 
It is at least significant that prior to 1914 timber appraisals of young 
stands used an interest rate of 7 per cent for the calculations, which is 
unique in forest technique and is due to the high returns and to the risk 
from fire. 

Huffel estimates the average forest revenue in the Landes at $2,702,000 
net per year, representing a new capitalization including timber of at 
least $86,850,000, or about $54 per acre. As a matter of fact State 
forests with gromng stock have been sold for around $60 per acre and 
to-day average more than $93 per acre for land purchased at less than a 
dollar! The bare soil sold for $16 to $32 an acre prior to 1914 — in 
other words, it was capitalized on the basis of what it could produce in 
resin and timber.-'^ 

The artificial barrier dunes cost about $96 per mile. The forestation 
cost has been as high as $38.60 per acre in the Landes and in the Coubre 
dunes only $14.20. In 1817 a large area was sown at a cost of $15.05 
per acre. In 1827 Dejean reported ^^ the cost per acre had been reduced 

2" J. H. Ricard says that unpeeled mine props sold for 15 francs per English ton in 
1903, and up to 18 francs in 1908; ties of various specifications 2 to 3.40 francs; squared 
timber 22 to 25 francs per ton. Regarding land values Ricard says that the bare land 
sold in 1835 at 8 to 15 francs per hectare as a minimum, with 30 to 40 francs as an 
average. In 1910 the values were 40 francs minimum, 100 francs ($7.72 per acre) 
average, and up to 300 francs maximum (.$23.16). 

^^ The details were as follows: 

Francs per hectare 

Cutting 1,400 fagots at 0.80 francs per 100 11 . 20 

Working them up at 0.80 francs per 100 11 .20 

Transport 1,500 to 2,000 meters at 4 francs per 100 56.00 

Drying at 1 franc per 100 14 . 00 

Miscellaneous fagot expense at 0.75 francs per 100 10.50 

One-half hectoliter maritime pine seed 10.00 

5 kilograms genista seed 2 . 50 

Miscellaneous expense and repairs 4.60 

Total 120.00 (or $9.26 per acre). 



COST AND PRICE DATA 



185 



1-' I-" t-i lO 
Ci O W ^J I-" 


to 


to CJ CO 
ts oo ^ 


•£; 4^ rf^ 
P 1*^ 00 
CJ1 


h-- to 


1861 

1865 

1870 

1875 

1880 

1885 
a 

1890 
1895 
1900 
1905 

1911 


! 1 i l*T~ 


t~-^ — — _^^i MM 


1 


— 




— 




— 














— ! — 





1 





1 1 ! — i — 1 — 




r i 


— 


— 


- 


— 




— 






' 






















1 1 






1 W — H — '' — ' 


■"■* 


























1 1 U 


I 




— 


l" 






























-^ , 












! l^-r^ 


] 










































J^P^ 1 














































|»_i— -= 


* 1 












































i.c^ 


1 




1 




















































































1 i^-i-^ 














































1 


|,J_j — 1 — i — 


^1 










































1 1 ' — 

9^- , 1 1 


■« 












































•c4 — p"! 1 




1 








































*if^ 1 














































1 r~1:ri» 1 










































1 "C — 1 1 












































J^ 














































Xl 


1 1 






















1 




















4 — r-i T"? 
















































^f-4— 1^1 
















































1 |«ir-T-=r* 












































1 






—y* 










































1 


Ic^ 


















































1 1 T"^!^! 
















































1 


— T* 


















































r' 


Ji. 






















































s 




' 




5" 


















































-< 


















































J_— 1— — 


.>• 


















































,^ 


» 
















































i*« 


=^ 


:» 




















































•: 


^«, 






















































^ 





















































N 


=» 


















































•r 


^ 




















































s 


»<4.^ 






















































*^ 


>• 






















































f~T~X 


















































5r- 




— :< 


• 














































-^ 


.J* 
























































-^ 


1 , 






















































•E 


;--f^ 


















































•e 


r-Pr* 






















































^-^ 




















































•: 


L---f* 
























































?• 




















































' 


















































•*- 






















































J 












< 


<• 1 






























































• 



































Fig. 16. — Barrel price, in dollars, of turpentine at Bordeaux. 



186 



FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 



to $9.26. To-day there would be natural regeneration. The cost per 
acre for hoeing (to 8 inches deep) and clearing fire lines has been, accord- 
ing to Bert, about $6.50, or for a fire line 33 feet wide $26 per mile. 

The price of turpentine at Bordeaux from 1861 to 1911 is shown in 
Fig. 16. The extremely high price per barrel (340 liters or exactly 359 
liquid quarts) in 1862 was because of the American civil war. 

According to Conservateur de Lapasse, writing from Bordeaux De- 
cember 16, 1919, the average prices per liter (1.05671 liquid quarts) of 
resin (resines ou gemmes) for the past 14 years were as follows: 



TABLE 19.— PRICE OF CRUDE RESIN 



Year 


Price per liter, 
d6llars 


Year 


Price per liter, 
dollars 


1906 


0.050 


1913 


0.048 


1907 


0.052 


1914 « 


0.054 






1914 * 


0.025 


1908 


0.052 


1915 


0.046 


1909 


0.058 


1916 


0.093 


1910 


0.071 


1917 <^ 


0.125 


1911 


0.079 


1918 


0.135 


1912 


0.071 


1919 


0.208 



° Price up to the war. 
* Price August 1 to October 1, 1914. 

<: In 1917 the franc ran 5| to the dollar, in 1918 about 5| to 5f , and in 1919, 5f to 11^ 
The normal rate $0,193 to the franc has been used in conversions. 



MANAGEMENT OF MARITIME PINE FORESTS 

Objects of Management (Protection Forests). — The objects of State 
management are to protect the soil from drifting sand and to produce 
resin, lumber (short length), ties, mine props, paving blocks, and other 
special wood products. The aim of the Government has apparently 
been greater volume production, disregarding consideration of the 
sizes in which it is produced, while private owners look to resin pro- 
duction and to higher stumpage values involved in larger timber. This 
is natural, because the poorer soils where State timber grows could not 
produce tall, large saw timber. The State is now looking more to 
receipts from resin. But according to Barrington Moore: 

"The essential difference between Government and private management is that 
the former aims to produce a maximum volume of wood, whereas the latter aims to 
produce as much turpentine as possible and considers the wood as secondary. As 
^ght be expected, the Government must care for the needs of the community as well 
as for revenue. The Government foresters themselves admit that turpentine is more 
profitable than wood. . . . The silvicultural difference is, briefly, that the Government 
thins its forests lightly in such a way as to keep a complete canopy in order to grow 



OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT (PROTECTION FORESTS) 187 

the trees tall and straight and keep a maximum number per acre, whereas private own- 
ers choose the best trees to leave and thin heavily around them to give each tree full 
sunhght and encourage a large crown development." 

Yet, as a matter of fact, the best timber is in private hands because 
the private forests usually occupy the richest soils, while the State 
forests are along the coast. In the Landes and Gironde most of the 
dune forests are in public hands and they are primarily held as a zone 
of defence against drifting sand. Of necessity they are heavily thinned 
relatively to allow the crown development so necessary to a light-demand- 
ing species. Moreover, so far as my own investigations show, even State 
forests outside protection working groups are now managed for resin rather 
than for lumber. Private forests are in less exposed situations and are 
managed solely for profit, and resin yields more than two-thirds the income. 

According to an unpubKshed official note it appears that protection 
working groups must be handled with great conservatism: 

". . . The protection 22 -forking group will then be treated with cuttings having 
a selection character; a physical exploitability will be applied, taking count, however, 
in a certain measure, of the special vegetative conditions of the maritime pine. Tap- 
ping without killing will be practiced, but with prudence, the yield in resin being first 
sacrificed in the interest of keeping the stand as fully stocked as possible in the essen- 
tial role of protection. Experience has shown that the faculty given executive agents 
by the special decisions governing exploitation of the coast working groups, of com- 
mencing the application of tapping without killing pine measuring 12 inches and over 
in diameter (instead of 14 inches in the other working groups), has had unfortunate 
results on the increment and longevity of the trees faced. In the last marking we have 
really been obhged to let a considerable number of pine clearly over-worked remain 
idle in order to allow them to heal their scars which were too numerous and too wide. 

"Being selected for protection working groups the production inivood is only second- 
ary; on the other hand the production in resin can return an important revenue from 
these stands. But this production will not continue sustained unless it is not over- 
whelmed by a premature chipping of the trees exposed to the ocean winds, and con- 
sequently growing under less favorable conditions than the stands in the interior. 
Accordingly we believe that the reverse of this has been carried out and under penalty 
of making mistakes it is essential that the pine of the coast working groups be treated 
conservatively and only tapped without killing when they reach a size which will en- 
able them to stand this operation. We are of the opinion that, as in the case of the 
exploitation working groups, the tapping without killing cannot be applied until the 
trees measure at least 14 inches in diameter. In the seventh working group the fellings 
will take place on the basis of special recommendations; the work done will follow the 
principles which have just been explained." 

22 Cultural rules for protection working groups, unpublished note by De Lapasse, 
dated December 21, 1908: The general forest conditions of the Landes and Gironde 
have already been described (see p. 169) and also the silvical characteristics of the 
maritime pine (see p. 401). Mature stands 60 to 70 years old average 10,000 to 20,000 
board feet to the acre; this high yield from small timber is because the soil is fully 
stocked. On private land mature timber runs 60 to 70 trees per acre and in State 
forests 100 or more. 



188 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

On the Lacanau (Gironde) State Forest the dune protection strip, 
according to the current working plan, is 2,625 feet wide where only 
the dead and dying trees are cut. In the State Forest of Carcans 
(Gironde) the protective zone is classified into three distinct parts and 
the growth of the dune forests as you approach the ocean (east to west) 
is similar to the decrease in growth as you near the Hmit of tree growth 
in the mountains: (1) The littoral zone of mere shrubs which is 535 to 
1 322 feet wide. (2) A zone of badly formed trees of no commercial 
value, of slow growth and open formation. (3) A third zone where the 
stand is sufficiently dense to be tapped but which is maintained without 
tapping as a protective barrier. It is very significant that these trees 
which are exposed in part to the rigors of the ocean winds are not tapped 
at all but are maintained exclusively as a protective zone. 

Silvicultural Systems. — Next to the protection working group (which 
is in the shape of a long strip five-eighths of a mile parallel to the ocean) 
additional working groups (in strips) are laid out from west to east. 
These are treated as high forests by the shelterwood compartment 
system with the usual seed fellings and secondary fellings omitted, since 
regeneration is easy by clear cutting without the necessity of seed trees 
or the shelter of a portion of the mature stand. The seed is furnished by 
the tops of the felled trees. The normal compartment is 247 acres 
which may be leased for tapping or sold for cutting as a unit or in as 
many as four sub-units, especially if because of dunes or previous fires 
the character of the timber differs. Final cutting is clear for the unit. 
All tops are lopped out and left or scattered to lie flat on the ground to 
assist reseeding. Before felling all underbrush and seedlings are felled 
flat for the same purpose. The cover of moss, needles, limbs, and 
brush prevents any movement of the sand before the pine seed has a 
chance to sprout. Under this procedure natural reseeding nearly always 
occurs. On areas in which it fails sowing is done. Because of sod, high- 
water table, etc., natural seeding is frequently not so successful in the 
private forests. Sowing there may be broadcast or in plowed strips. 
Planting is also done extensively, largely with seedlings collected from 
nearby stands. Grazing is not permitted for about four years after 
sowing or planting on private areas. Immediately around Arcachon 
the maritime pine is under the selection system and is kept entirely cleared 
of undergrowth, since it is maintained as a sort of pleasure park for 
tourists. In the nearby forest of La Teste some clear cutting was 
practiced entirely too near the sea and after two years the regeneration 
had only partially succeeded. It would have been much better to have 
left a protective zone of virgin timber for seed, since clear cutting 
close to the sea is always dangerous, especially with the current fire 
danger. 



INTERMEDIATE FELLINGS 189 

Intermediate Fellings. — After the stand has been regenerated the 
sapling thickets are thinned by the so-called "depressage" (see p. 110), 
before they reach merchantable size, to avoid fungous damage, and 
cleanings are sometimes necessary to protect the pine against the 
heather. 

Under "Improvement Cutting" the Biscarrosse working plan pro- 
vides : 

"Cleanings and thinnings without tapping. Commence the cleanings in the re- 
generated 'periodic blocks' 5 years old; at the same time lop the lower whorls of the 
vigorous shoots and cut the weeds which suppress the pine. These (cultural) opera- 
tions should be made periodically every 5 years and will become thinnings at 10 to 15 
years; thus the stand will be systematically thinned and when about 20 to 25 years 
old there should be about 200 stems per acre. Do not hesitate to cut back the weeds at 
each period, both broom and furze, with the double object of doing away with thickets 
which promote conflagrations and to give the pine the air and light so necessary for 
good growth. It is, in effect, absolutely proven in the Landes that the pineries on 
cleared soil grow much better than those with thick understory (of weeds) . In the older 
stands the thinnings (without tapping or with the axe) have almost entirely the char- 
acter of weedings; the advance seedlings of no value at the time of regeneration will then 
disappear under the cover of the dominant story." 

Pruning usually starts at 10 years of age. The typical 3-inch tree is 
naturally pruned up to 2 feet above the ground, while the typical tree 
of 6 inches is pruned artificially up to 10 to 12 feet above the ground. 
The branches, which are left as they fall, take about 5 years to rot. 
This pruning is done every 5 years. In order to protect stands from 
fire at the time of cleaning the genista is now cut. Stands artificially 
sown are usually mixed with a dense stand of genista 10 feet high; con- 
sequently the pine has to be freed. The first thinning or cleaning is 
quite heavy and one stand was noted where there were 800 trees per acre 
before the thinning that showed only 480 per acre after the thinning. 

Regular thinnings "with the axe" without tapping (see p. 110) are 
thus usually necessary before the trees are large enough to stand a face. 
At about 25 years, depending on the growth, the regular thinnings 
by tapping to death begin, often preceded by tapping to exhaustion 
(see quotation below). This merely means that instead of at once fell- 
ing a tree, which is superfluous or of poor quality, it is first heavily 
tapped for a period and then tapped to death and cut after four or more 
years of very intensive tapping. This type of thinning is continued 
every 5 to 10 years until the stand is mature and rather open (see p. 192). 

In the forest of Biscarrosse (Landes) thinnings by tapping alive are 
conducted as follows : -^ 

23 Extract from the revised working plan for Biscarrosse (Landes) forest containing 
an inspection note from De Lapasse of December 21, 1908. Reference is made to page 
193 where the new 4-year cycle (for thinnings and tapping) is fully explained. 



190 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

"The thinnings made every 5 years will aim to open up the forest. This favors 
both the production of wood and resin in maritime pine. The thinnings will aim to 
maintain the timber in a good state of growth by placing it under the best conditions 
for increment; owing to the fact that the maritime pine is a light demanding species 
one should not forget that in the case of this species the underwood as well as the sup- 
pressed trees are valueless and that the upper story alone is of interest. This cul- 
tiu-al rule seems much surer than that given in the working-plan report. 

"In the regenerated stands the thinnings with tapping will commence at about 
25 years of age, or as soon as the timber shall have attained a sufficient size to enable 
it to stand a face. Except when the removal of a pine is more or less urgent tapping 
to death or 'tapping to exhaustion' will be followed. The 'tapping to exhaustion' 
will precede the application of tapping to death by at least the length of a period 
(5 years) ; it can then be accomplished by one or by two faces according to the size of 
the trees. This method of tapping will be appUed to the entire stand of each periodic 
block during the period which precedes regeneration. The tapping without kilhng 
(gemmage a vie) will continue to be applied to the pine 14 inches and over at breast 
height. Very vigorous trees measuring at least 16 inches in diameter can be intensively 
tapped without killing and receive two faces. This method of extracting the resin 
can be made general and will be justified chiefly during the three or four periods pre- 
ceding regeneration. 

"The application of 'exhaustive tapping' and of intensive tapping without killing 
(without injury to the stands) has been rendered possible by the decision of the Direc- 
tor General, dated March 23, 1908, who has authorized the Mont-de-Marsan inspection 
to reduce the sizes of the faces in height and in diameter," 

It should be particularly noted that so-called exhaustive tappings 
which precede the usual thinnings by tapping to death is a new feature 
of French practice aimed at the increase of resin production in State 
forests. This means that there is a good deal of marking expense. 
In 1905, in the inspection of Mont-de-Marsan, 15,180 acres had to be 
marked; the work lasted practically continuously from February, 1915, 
to July 8, and the marking removed on an average of almost exactly 40 
trees per acre, or 612,455 trees. This illustrates the heavy thinnings 
followed in State forests — so necessary for maritime pine to develop 
good crowns. The first cleaning in private forests takes place at 4 
years, and the first tapping to death for thinning at 15 years. By 30 
years the stand is pretty well reduced to its final number and tapping 
of all trees alive begins. The "Landes" rule is that no permanent tree 
should be tapped until it is at least 13 inches in diameter. All private 
tapping is now being done 4 years to a face. 

Rotations. — The State forest rotations adopted in the past have been 
70 years with fourteen periods of 5 years each, 72 years with twelve 
periods of 6 years each, 75 years with fifteen periods of 5 years each, 
and 80 years with sixteen periods of 5 years each. When the length of 
the period is six years the consecutive tapping is separated by one year 
of rest. In a large number of forests, however, the final rotation is 
preceded by a transitory rotation which usually differs for each working 



WORKING GROUPS 191 

group. Rotations in private forests are usually shorter. The average 
is between 55 and 65 years and, where the production of mine props is 
the chief objective, the rotations can be reduced to about 40 to 50 years. 
With the new 4-year thinning cycle the present rotations may be slightly 
reduced. 

According to the working plan for the forest of Biscarrosse, revised 
January 7, 1910, the maritime pine has a 75-year rotation. The forest 
is divided into fifteen periodic blocks. The growth data available show 
that the maximum growth of the maritime pine is between 40 and 
50 years; therefore a transitional rotation of 60 years has been recom- 
mended. It is almost certain that as the humus in the different maritime 
forests fertilizes the soil the growth will become more rapid, so that the 
proverbial 70 to 75 year rotations may be generally reduced to 55 to 65 
years. 

According to this working plan "The yield is estabHshed by area; 
the surface of each periodic block is run over by a clear-cut regeneration 
felHng, exploited during the period having the same numerical order as 
the periodic block. " 

Felling Cycles. — In the past the felling cycle was almost invariably 5 
years, but sometimes 4 to 6 years. In the future it will usually be 4 years 
(see p. 193). In the past the trees were resined for 4 years and felled the 
fifth year. But in the forest of Carcans a 6-year period allowed 5 years 
for tapping and the usual 1 year for felling. 

Working Groups. — According to De Lapasse the past method of 
management was as follows: 

"These forests are divided into working groups whose number varies from two to 
six, according to their importance and size; working groups are established in long strips 
parallel to the ocean, bounded by parallel fire lines, the first working group being placed 
on the east side of the forest. In each working group the periodic blocks are numbered 
in the order in which regeneration is fixed, from the north to the south. In each forest 
the working plans have established a group without predetermined treatment, to in- 
clude the dune and littoral zone, designed to form a shelter belt which protects the re- 
mainder of the stand against wind action and sand coming from the west. 

" The scheme is very simple. During each 5-year period each periodic block (except 
those to be regenerated and those including young growth) is run over by a thinning with 
turpentine operations. The trees which are to be removed are, before they are cut, 
tapped to death during a period of 4 years; simultaneously, the pines which have 
reached 14 inches in diameter and above are tapped alive for 5 years. The oldest 
periodic block in turn is regenerated by clear cuttings preceded by tapping to death 
all the trees. These are felled during the fifth (see 'New Tapping Scheme,' p. 193) 
and last year of the period. The periodic blocks of young growth are run over by or- 
dinary thinnings without tapping. At the beginning of each period (every 5 years) 
each working group is completely marked (and valued) to compute the material of the 
clearcut regeneration fellings (to be sold standing) and the trees to be tapped alive where 
the contractor receives only the resin." 



192 



FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 



With the new 4-year tapping cycle a working plan for a maritime pine 
forest having a 68-year rotation and 17 periods would normally be worked 
as follows: 



TABLE 20.— WORKING PLAN FOR A MARITIME PINE FOREST 



§ 




Tapping periods 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


o 


> 


Is 


1921 


1925 


1929 


1933 


1937 


1941 


1945 


1949 


1953 


1957 


1961 


1965 


1969 


1973 


1977 


1981 


1985 


> 


s 


M 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


5 




< 


1924 


1928 


1932 


1936 


1940 


1944 


1948 


1952 


1956 


1960 


1964 


1968 


1972 


1976 


1980 


1984 


1988 




I 


64 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


I 


II 


60 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


8 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


II 


III 


56 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


III 


IV 


52 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


IV 


V 


48 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


V 


VI 


44 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


VI 


VII 


40 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


VII 


VIII 


36 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


VIII 


IX 


32 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


" 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


IX 


X 


28 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


" 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


X 


XI 


24 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


XI 


XII 


20 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


e 


XII 


XIII 


16 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


e 


XIII 


XIV 


12 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


e 


XIV 


XV 


8 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


II 


e 


XV 


XVI 


4 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


" 


XVI 


XVII 





11 


e 


e 


e 


e 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


ge 


G3 


G2 


Gg 


R 


XVII 



Data furnished by Conservateur de Lapasse, April 7, 1920. Key to abbreviations 
used in above table : 

R — Regeneration fellings, by clear cutting after tapping to death during 4 years. 
The felling takes place at the end of the fourth year (winter up to January) of the period 
and dm'ing the first year (winter after January) of the next period. 

Gg — 1. Exhaustive general tapping (gemmage-epuisement general) during the period 
that precedes regeneration. All trees receive at least one face. 2. Continued tapping 
aUve. 

G2 — 1. Exhaustive tapping during the period which precedes Gg. All trees 10 
inches and over in diameter are given one face. 2. Continued tapping aUve. 

G3 — 1. Moderate exhaustive tapping during the period which precedes G2. All 
trees 11 inches and over in chameter are given one face. 2. Continued tapping alive. 

ge — 1. Rapid exhaustive tapping or tapping to death of all excess trees which must 
be quickly removed by thinnings. 2. Slow exhaustive tapping of trees which wUl be 
gradually removed in thinnings. 3. Tapping alive with one face of all trees at least 
12 inches in diameter. Also the felling of damaged trees at the end of the fourth year 
of the period and during the first part of the first year of the next period. 

" — No cultural operations. 

e — Cultural operations ivithout tapping. 1. In the young stands beginning with 
about 5 years: freeing of seedlings and clearing of brush heather. 2. In stands 10 to 
20 years old: "depressages," and thinnings with gradual pruning of lower branches up 
to a height of 11.5 feet on the bole. The foregoing system (which slightly modifies the 
past procedure in state forests as can be seen from the text) is now (1920) to be standard 
for all forests under public forest management. 



NEW TAPPING SCHEME 



193 



New Tapping Scheme. — The French have abandoned the fifth year 
of tapping (see Fig. 17, a and h) because of the following objections: (1) 
Difficulty of chipping the face when it is over 9.8 feet in height; (2) this 
high face, which is often too deep because of the difficulty of accurate 
chipping, heals poorly or at least very slowly; (3) an important part of 
the bole is damaged by a high face. For these reasons the tapping period 
has been changed from 5 to 4 years. The dimensions for the faces now 
are : 

TABLE 21.— WIDTH AND HEIGHT OF FACES 



Year 


Width 


Heig 


ht 


Centinieters 


Inches 


Centimeters 


Inches 


1 
2 
3 

4 
Total.... 


9 
9 

8 
7 to 6 


3.5 
3.5 
3.1 

2.75 to 2.36 


60 
60 
75 
95 
2.90 meters 


23.6 
23.6 
29.5 
37.4 

9.5 feet 











With the former fifth year system in vogue the total height was 3.70 
meters (12.1 feet) before 1904; 3.40 meters (11.1 feet) from 1904 to 1909; 
and 3.20 meters (10.4 feet) since 1910. A translation of the official tap- 
ping rules is given in the Appendix, p. 429. 

According to Cattin and Saint-Jours a period of rest of 1 or 2 years is 
not always necessary with strong, thrifty trees, although the annual 
growth is unquestionably increased if the rest is given. On the Florida 
National Forest in the United States there are 6 years of tapping followed 
by 3 years of rest ; with the French system of tapping such a period of rest 
is generally considered unnecessary. 

In the forest of La Teste trees but 7, 10, and 12 inches in diameter each 
(being tapped to death) had three faces the first year and later four to five. 
The trees tapped alive had one face only. Formerly, the faces began on 
the south side and went to the north, then to the west, and then to the 
east. Now the first face is placed on the east side of the tree (away from 
the ocean) where the growth is best, then to the west; the third and fourth 
faces being regulated by the contour of the tree. The best growth in this 
locality is always opposite the ocean and the prevailing winds. 

This reduction in the length of the tapping period, when applied to 
forests being worked on 5-year cycles, will mean the revision of working 
plans. The regeneration by clear cutting will be every 4 years instead of 
5 years as formerly, and the cycle for thinnings will also be reduced from 5 
to 4 3^ears. In the future the cleanings will be made earlier after re- 



194 



FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 



generation, since experience has shown the inconvenience of waiting for 
5, 6, or 7 years as was formerly done. 




Fig. 17 (a). — ■ Maritime pine 57 years old during improvement felling. The face 
on the first tree, which is being tapped ahve, has been worked only one week. 
(b) . — Small tree being tapped to death prior to utihzation for mine props. 

Tapping Other Species. — According to unpublished notes loaned the 
writer by Cuif in 1912, he has concluded finally that the tapping of 
Austrian or Scotch pine will never be commercially practicable without a 
decided increase in present turpentine and rosin prices. ^^ This agrees 
with the results in other forests which are not usually tapped for resin. 
For example, in Corsica, during the extremely high prices caused by the 
American Civil War, Corsican pine had been tapped for awhile and then 
abandoned; the same was true of California yellow pine. 

24 Le Gemmage du pin noir d'Autriche et du pin sylvestre en Meurthe-et-MoseUe, 
par Cuif, 1912 (impubUshed notes). 



RESIN SALES 195 

Resin Sales. — According to a digest of resin sales made at Mont-de- 
Marsan, October 5, 1909, for the period 1910 to 1914, inclusive, the policy 
of favoring the small operator is just as much in evidence as with ordinary 
timber sales in other parts of France. The payments which are made 
annually vary between $400 and $2,000 and, ordinarily are less than 
$1,500. If a large company, for example, desired to secure a considerable 
area for resin operations, it would be necessary for it to bid in a number 
of contiguous or nearly contiguous resin sales, some of which might be 
advantageously located for a small local operator. This clearly results in 
a better price and gives the small operator an excellent chance to secure 
areas convenient to his home. Each bidder is supplied with detailed 
data as to the stand and estimated products, boundaries, methods of 
removal, and charges, as in the case of ordinary timber sales. An 
example follows : 

"Article 1. — Forest of Biscarrosse — Fifth series. — Affectation 1 (p) Canton dune 
de Jaongue-Soule. First lot, area 91 acres. 

Clear-cut regeneration felling, with privileges of tapping to death for 4 years from 
1910 to 1913, comprising the exploitation of 15,379 pines, to wit: 

D. B. H. inches = Poles 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 
15,379 pines = 235 3248 3938 3857 1898 841 707 486 118 30 13 6 2 

Estimated products: Lumber 3,164 cubic meters; firewood, 1,186 steres; resin 1,762 
hectoliters. 

Boundaries: N. fire line boundary of the Gironde; E. fire line parallel No. 2; S. second 
lot; W. communal water hollow of Jaongue-Soule. 

Removal: By the Cugnes and Brofond roads. 

Accessory exploitation: Lopping understory. Products may be left as they lie. 

Charges: Repair of roads, $173.70. 

Fire tool box: The contractor shall install, either in a tapper's cabin or in a special 
locked box, in a place to be designated by the local forest officer, the following tools — 
2 axes, 2 sickles, 2 shovels, and 2 rakes. The kind of tools will be selected by the head 
ranger; they will remain the property of the contractor who will keep them intact and 
in good condition; the depot will be ready by January 31 following the sale." 

The following special clauses were specified : 

"The extracting of resin will take place in the following manner instead of as specified 
in Art. 19 of the specifications (see Appendix, p. 429) : 

Of the trees to be tapped alive those so designated by the Forest Service may re- 
ceive two faces. 

If the period of tapping is 5 years, the face may be raised 23.6 inches during the 
first two years; 25.6 inches during the third and fourth years, and 27.5 inches during 
the fifth, provided the total height of the face does not exceed 10.5 feet. If this period 
is four years, the face may be raised 25.6 inches the first year, 27.5 inches during the 
second and third years, and 29.5 inches during the fourth, provided the total height 
of the face does not exceed 9.2 feet. In all cases the width of the face must not exceed 
the following dimensions: During the first year 3.5 inches, during the second 3.1 inches, 
during the third 2.8 inches, during the fourth 2.4 inches, during the fifth 2 inches. 



196 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

The decrease in the width will be made gradually in such manner that the width at 
the end of each year will equal that of the next year. 

The faces will be made . . . so as to divide the circumference of the tree in three 
practically equal parts, the second face to be opened at the right (facing it) of the first. 
The faces shall be raised by following the grain of the wood. The other non-conflicting 
stipulation of Article 19 shall remain in force." 

The regular French specifications covering resin operations are given 
in full, as are those for the United States and for British India, in the 
Appendix. 

Each operator is informed that payment must be made annually for 
a period of five years, that in the thinnings the pines to be tapped to 
death are marked with two imprints of the State marking hatchets, one 
on the bole and one on the roots, while trees to be tapped permanently 
(gemmage a vie) with one face are stamped once on the bole; if two faces, 
two stamps on the bole, one below the other. Contractors who do not 
furnish the fire fighting tools (prescribed under "charges") must under- 
stand that they will be bought by the Waters and Forests Service and 
charged to their account. Foreign workmen can be hired only up to 
10 per cent of the total number employed. A fixed price for the trans- 
portation of products from Federal forests is agreed upon with the local 
railways and the rates furnished the contractor. In some instances 
the Forest Service has built both narrow and broad gauge railways on 
State forests which are leased to the operator or to connecting lines. 

French Tools for Tapping and Their Use. — Fig. 18 -^ shows the principal 
French tools used in tapping maritime pine to secure the resin for the 
manufacture of turpentine. The letters following correspond to those in 
the figure. 

(a) Barrasquit d'Espourga. — This tool is used to shave off the bark 
of trees to be tapped. This is a preliminary operation made at the 
beginning of each year; the workman shaves the bark vertically from 
top to bottom to remove the dry and hard superficial bark, so as to make 
the tapping easier. The area cleaned is 11.8 to 13.7 inches wider and 
3.9 to 5.9 inches higher than the dimensions of the proposed face. It 
should be noted, however, that the shaving is usually done with an 
ordinary axe for the first year of tapping, because the face is low and 
easily reached; for the second year of tapping it is sometimes done with 
an axe or with the short-handled barrasquit. Before the third or fourth 
year, the cleaning is always done with the instrument shown in the 
figure. The "barrasquit de barrasque," a similar tool, is used to scrape 
the dry, soHdified resin from the face at the end of the season. This 

25 Adapted from Plate IX, Bulletin 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. The names of 
the instruments have been added in the legend under the figure and the description of 
use materially changed and corrected. 



FRENCH TOOLS FOR TAPPING AND THEIR USE 197 




SCALE OF INCHES 
i 9 ' 2 3 4 -5 6 



10 11 12 



Fig. 18. — French Turpentine Tools, (a) Barrasquit d'espourga; (6) Palette (or 
palinette); (c) Hapchot (new model is called bridon) ; (d) Rasclet; (e) Place-crampon 
(or ponsse-crampon). 



198 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

so-called scrape is collected in a bucket at each tree, or is allowed to fall 
on a piece of cloth spread around the base of the tree. 

(6) Palette {or Palinette). — A flat trowel, or scrape, for transferring 
the soft resin from the pots (attached to the trees) to the collection 
bucket. The short handle shown in the figure (6) is of wood, usually 
reinforced with an iron band. The wooden bucket, or ''I'escouarte," 
usually holds 5.2 gallons. When the bucket is full the resin is trans- 
ferred to a barrel, used for transport to the turpentine still, or is stored 
temporarily in a "bare," a wooden tank sunk in the sand and protected 
with a wooden cover. A bare holds 60.7 to 92.4 gallons. 

(c) Hapchot {new model is called Bridon). — This is the special axe 
for clipping the face. The successive shavings are made from right to 
left, or from the top downward; the left hand is placed on top, resting 
against the iron of the axe; the right hand underneath grips the wooden 
handle (see Fig. 17b). Each shaving is cut clean and thin and starts 
the resin .canals flowing again after they have become clogged up. The 
length of handle depends on the height of the incision above the ground ; 
it is used for clipping faces of the first, second, and third year periods. 
If used for the fourth and fifth years (fifth year now generally abandoned) 
the workman must use a ladder, usually simply a notched pole. 

{d) Rasclet. — The curved cutting edge (at the right) is used for 
clipping the high faces of the fourth or fifth years of tapping. The tool 
has a long handle and is used like the hapchot, described above. The 
straight cutting edge (at the left) is used for making incisions to hold thin, 
flat pieces of wood which prevent the gum from dripping on the gi'ound 
and guide it into the pot. 

(e) Place-Crampon {or Pousse-Crampon). — The place-crampon is 
used for inserting at the base of the face the zinc blade, or crampon, 
which finally guides the resin into the pot without any waste. The 
workman holds the place-crampon in his left hand with convex face 
(shown in Fig. 18) toward the soil, the edge on the lower part of the 
face where he wishes to insert the gutter. It is then tapped with a wooden 
mallet, held in the right hand, and an incision made about one-fifth of 
an inch into the wood of the tree. The place-crampon is then pulled 
out, the gutter tapped into place, and the pot is then hung below the 
gutter. The tin trays which hold the resin (in use at La Teste) were 2.3 
by 6 inches; but usually earthenware pots are used of the same capacity.^* 

26 In 1836 (according to J. H. Ricard) H. Serres suggested terra cotta troughs in- 
stead of the wasteful "box" cut in the base of the tree. Hughes, in 1841, suggested a 
small earthenware pot but the improved methods were not adopted until about 1855 
or later. Galvanized sheet-iron "cups" have been tried because they are lighter 
than the earthenware pots. The nail to hold the cup is a bad feature, since it might 
be left in the butt log and cause damage to saws at the mill. Probably the ideal "cup" 



TECHNIQUE OF TAPPING 199 

French and American Methods Contrasted. — • The main difference 
between tapping methods in France and the United States on National 
Forests seems to be in the width of the face and the annual rate of in- 
crease in its height, and the number of faces per tree. In the United 
States the first streak cannot begin higher than 10 inches above the 
ground. In France it can be anywhere above the root swelling. In 
the United States the maximum depth of streak is 0.5 inch; in France 
it is approximately 0.4 inch. In the United States in Federal tapping 
operations ^'^ no tree less than 10 inches can be tapped, and trees 16 
inches and over can have two faces, while trees 10 to 16 inches can 
have but one face. In France the minimum diameter of trees tapped 
alive on State forests (trees to be removed in thinnings can be tapped 
to death no matter how small) is 13 inches and the number of faces is 
specially designated by the local forest officer. In the United States the 
face can l)e 12 to 14 inches wide with no specified decrease in width as 
the face proceeds up the tree. In France it is 3.5 to 2.4 inches, decreasing 
each year as the distance above the ground increases. The maximum 
height increase per year in the United States is 16 inches, while in France 
the face can be lengthened 24 to 26 inches, and even up to 39 inches 
in case of 4-year tappings. Without exhaustive experiments the best 
methods to follow cannot be stated, but tentative results from the Florida 
Forest in the United States show the French method is not applicable 
to mature, large timber and that the yield in resin per square inch of face 
is slightly greater with the American (Government) method of wide faces. 

Technique of Tapping. — The trees (on State forests) for tapping alive 
are blazed on the bark and stamped " AF " at the base and at breast height. 

It is necessary 2* for a good worker to be able to cut a thin, even slice 
of wood to increase face and to continue the face vertically following the 
grain of the wood. The sliver is about 3 inches wide, 5 to 7 inches long, 
and usually less than 0.4 inch deep. The first step is always to smooth 
the outer bark wdth the axe. The tendency is to bark too large rather 
than too' small an area. In placing the gutters care should be taken 
not to cut into the tree with the place-crampon more than 0.2 inch; this 
is a sufficient depth, inasmuch as the gutter is glued by the sap as soon as 
it flows, and besides if the gutters are set too deep it is very difficult to 
remove them in the autumn. The gutter should, of course, be slightly 
inclined toward the ground so that the sap will run off into the cup. 

has not yet been invented. It must be easy to place, secure, easy to remove, and must 
not damage the tree. 

Ricard states that the yield of resin is greatest near the ocean, with thrifty, rapidly 
growing trees, with thin chipping at frequent intervals, and with hot weather. 

-^ It would be unwise to attempt to pass legislation limiting the size of trees that 
should be tapped. This is a technical problem to be solved for each forest. 

28 Le Pin Maritime (Manuel Pratique) par R. Cattin et J. J. Saint-Jours. 



200 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

There seems to be a good deal of variation in the frequency of tapping. 
Some chip once a week during the entire season, others every 5 days, 
while still others will only chip once every 12 to 15 days; this latter 
method decreases the resin flow. On the whole, it is better to chip at 
regular intervals, with the rule that the chipping would be more frequent 
during the hot weather in the summer than during the spring or autumn. 
A common rule followed in the Landes is to "chip once every 5 days from 
May 15 to September 15 and once a week during the remainder of the 
period." 

The cups are usually cleaned seven times a year and the rain is poured 
out after chipping. The trees are scraped once sometime between 
October and December. It is usually recommended to begin the first 
of March and continue until the end of October.^^ 

It is not only necessary to secure a quantity^'* of gum but also to secure 
a good quality. Therefore, it should not be allowed to deteriorate in the 
cups. Yet to collect too frequently means unnecessary expense. To dip 
ten times per season is hardly necessary, while seven or eight times is a 
good average. Five "collections a year, on the other hand, is not often 
enough. The difference between good, clean resin and that which is full 
of chips and other debris may be as much as a dollar per barrel. 

Effect of Tapping. — There is no question but that the turpentine 
operation decreases the rate of growth of maritime pine, but, on the 
other hand, it makes the wood harder and more durable and the im- 
pregnation even extends to the heartwood. The general opinion is 
that tapped trees are better for flooring, boards, ties, and planks, while 
untapped pine is better for telegraph poles, mine props, and box boards. 
Unquestionably the quality of the wood diminishes after 25 to 30 years 
of tapping alive, and is inferior to wood cut from trees tapped to death for 
only 3 to 4 years. 

2' J. H. Ricard, writing in 1910, made the following conclusions: Tapping opera- 
tions are from March to October. The face should be chipped every 8 days in spring 
and fall and every 4 to 5 days in summer. The pot should be emptied every 2 to 3 
weeks and there should be one barrel for storage per 1,000 trees tapped. There are 
about 40 chippings per season and the cut should be less rather than more than 0.3 
inch; wide faces are unnecessary because the resin comes from the sides of the cut and 
"the return in resin has not been proportional to the surface of the face." After 4 
years of tapping trees should be given a rest of 2 to 3 years. Trees under 8 inches in 
diameter are rarely tapped unless they are to be removed in thinnings. A workman 
can chip 1,000 to 2,000 pine per day, according to the ground, and often tends about 
4,000 trees. 

5" The workmen received, before the war, one-half the resm for their pay and the 
operator or owner furnished the cups and gutters. The smoothing off of the bark 
begins the last of February and the scraping off of dried pitch is usually finished in 
early December. In the interim the resin tappers work at clearing underbrush and 
priming young stands. 



UTILIZATION, LOGGING, AND LOCAL SPECIFICATIONS 201 

( 

Utilization, Logging, and Local Specifications. — The trees from early 
thinnings which range from about 6.5 to 12 feet in length and from 3 to 4 
inches in diameter up are utilized for mine props. They are peeled when 
intended for use in the coal mines of France, and left with bark on for 
export to England. Props are also taken from the tops of mature trees 
cut for lumber. 

Later thinnings are utilized for props or sawlogs and so far as possible 
for telegraph poles. These poles range from 26 to 49 feet in length; first- 
class poles must have a diameter inside bark of 6 inches at 3.3 feet from 
the butt and 4.5 inches at the top; and the second-class poles, 10.5 inches 
3.3 feet from the butt and 4.5 inches at the tops. All poles are peeled in 
the woods. 

In cutting saw timber the felling is done with saws, and the logs are 
immediately bucked into lengths of 6.5 to 13 feet; 9 feet is the usual 
length. These short lengths are to eliminate crooks and to make hand- 
ling easier. The logs are then peeled, since after seasoning they are far 
easier to handle. The bark left on the ground also serves to build up 
the soil. Logging is done with two-wheeled mule carts, the logs being 
lifted by hand into the carts, the tires of the wheels are wide enough to 
permit their use on sandy roads. 

Many of the sawmills are stationary and are located on the railroads. 
Logs are hauled to these sawmills for considerable distances on the met- 
alled roads with the same conveyances. However, because the coupes 
are usually small, the bulk of the lumber cut in the Landes is produced 
by small portable band mills that are set in the middle of the tract to 
be cut. The lumber is then hauled to the station in mule carts. These 
small band mills are quickly moved from one site to another, and their 
adaptation for use under similar conditions in America seems desirable. 
A large part of the production of such mills consists of sawed railroad 
ties. 

The following is a summary of the specifications of wood products cut 
from maritime pine: 

Telegraph poles. — 23 to 39 feet in length and up to 39 inches in diameter inside 
bark, 4 inches. 

Piling. — All lengths minimum diameter at the small end, 13 inches. 

Box boards. — 6.5 to 7.7 feet in length and 8 to 12 inches in width, 0.4 to 0.8 of an 
inch thick. 

Flooring. — Length variable, width 3.1 to 5.9 inches, and thickness 1.1 inches. 

Beams (Grosse Charpente). — Length from 13 feet up by 9.8 to 12.6 by 7.1 to 7.8 
inches. 

Joists. — Length from 9.8 feet up and 7.1 to 7.8 inches by 3.9 to 4.3 square. 

Charcoal. — Usually sold in 10-barrel lots (barrel of 300 quarts). 

Ordinary fire wood. — Length 3.3 feet with sale unit a stack 3.3 feet long on the base 
by 4.4 high. 

Lath, etc. — Miscellaneous dimensions. 



202 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

Bert is authority for the following data: 

"Two cubic meters (about 550 board feet) of maritime pine will furnish 1 ton of 
boards. For rough calculations the average volume of mine props is . . . 20 mine 
props to the ton. A cubic meter of fuel wood weighs 0.7 ton, expanding to !§ steres. 
The weight of a stere (0.227 cord) is 0.467 of a ton. A barrel of resin (Gironde) of 
235 quarts weighs 0.2415 of a ton with a density of 1.05. A barrel of resin (Landes) 
of 340 quarts weighs 0.357 of a ton." 

A 235-quart barrel produces 110 pounds of turpentine and 352 pounds of dry 
material, chiefly resin. 

Yield of Maritime Pine. — In 1892 there were 105,763 acres of conifer 
State high forests in the Landes, and in addition, 22,625 acres, or between 
one-fourth and one-fifth as much as the productive area, had to be given 
up to protection. The production amounted to 30,072 cubic meters of 
timber (about 8,360,000 feet board measure or 80 feet per acre) and 4,161,- 
960 pounds of resin. 

The yield of maritime pine stands ^^ in the Mont-de-Marsan Inspection 
for the year 1905 showed a total of 47.6 cubic meters per acre (on an area 
of 22.2 acres) for pine 40 to 50 years old. According to Lapasse: 

"The resinous products represent approximately one-fifteenth the total weight 
or 7 per cent of the yield in weight of a maritime pine felling; the proportion of the 
product realized then, in weight, is wood product fourteen-fifteenths or 93 per cent, 
resinous products one-fifteenth or 7 per cent. The production of resin is variable; 
it depends on the density of the stand, on the underwood, on the state of growth, the 
size of the trees, the age of the face, the distance from the ocean, and on the skiU of 
the workman. The yield attains its maximum in open stands completely cleared of 
undergrowth, situated near the sea and during the second or third year of tapping. 
A humid and hot atmosphere favors the secretion of gum. The yield in resin is, on an 
average for 1,000 trees tapped alive, 640 quarts . . . per year, and in 5 years, the dura- 
tion of the tapping alive, 10,200 quarts. One might say that . . . 166 pines can yield 
annually a barrel of resin, but in order to collect 100 quarts it is necessary to have 50 
pines tapped alive, each tree producing an average of two quarts. In the thinnings 
1,000 trees tapped to death may yield (according to the size of the trees) from four to 
six barrels of 340 quarts each or an average of five barrels or 1,700 quarts per year 
and in the 4 years' duration of the tapping to death, 6,800 quarts. In this case, 200 
pines . . . produce annually a barrel or 59 pines tapped to death are necessary to 
obtain 100 quarts of resin. In the regeneration fellings with pine 65 to 70 years old 
with four faces each, each face can produce 1| quarts or 6 quarts per tree per year. 
One thousand pines tapped to death should produce 6,000 quarts or about 18 barrels 
per year, and 24,000 quarts in 4 years. An acre stocked on an average with 80 trees 
will yield about 480 quarts of resin per year and 1,920 in 4 years. To collect 100 quarts 
of resin it is necessary to have seventeen pines tapped to death per year." 

These figures are below rather than above the average. In the thin- 
nings marked during 1900 to 1905 on a total area of 57,847 acres in the 

3' Rendement des Forets Domaniales de pin maritime dans les dunes landaises. Revue 
des Eaux et Forets, June 1906. To simplify the calculations the author has taken a 
liter as equal to 1 liquid quart, whereas a liter is really 1.05671 quarts (liquid). 



PROTECTION 203 

Inspection of Mont-de-Marsan, with the trees averaging 40 years in 
age, the average yields per acre were as follows: (1) Timber products, 
22 pines removed, with a volume excluding branches of 3.6 cubic meters, 
about 1^ cords (or roughly 750 board feet). (2) Resin products, total 
jdeld for the 5 years of tapping, including the pine tapped alive, 340 quarts. 

The average return per acre from the timber was $3.42 (average price 
95 cents per cubic meter on the stump). During this period the value 
of resin varied from S10.61 to $17.37 a barrel (of 340 quarts). Exclud- 
ing 50 per cent of the value of the resin as the labor cost the net value 
of resin rights was $1.98 per 100 quarts, and the total average yield from 
thinnings was $10.15 per acre ($2.03 per year). Thus the yield from 
resin is twice that of timber. 

During the same period the clear-cut regeneration fellings yielded 
an average of 131 trees per acre (80 to 84 trees per acre is a fairer average), 
and the yield per acre was 48 cubic meters — 6,500 quarts of resin (about 
10.9 thousand feet board measure) at a total net price of $116.76 per 
acre ^- for land which, had it not been forested, would not only have 
been worthless to-day but would even have constituted a menace. 

For the year 1905 the gross receipts from all the State forests in the 
Landes Department amounted to $111,788, with an expense for adminis- 
tration of $15,976, making a net revenue of $91,941 for 56,762 acres, 
or a net yield per acre per year of $1.67. In 1889 there was a deficit of 
$7,008 in the Landes. Eight years later, 1897, there was a net surplus 
of $5,793 while, after eight years more, the revenue had increased to 
almost $96,500. This increase in revenue was partly in producing 
capacity and partly in the increased value of the product. 

It is interesting to compare the yield in cubic meters, steres, and 
hectoliters (100 quarts) with the annual charge.^^ According to data 
furnished by De Lapasse in one locality 62,840 trees furnished a total of 
14,640 cubic meters, 5,489 steres, and 7,900 hectoliters at a total annual 
charge of $9,090. 

On a unit basis per tree the yield is 0.28 cubic meter, 0.08 stere, 
0.12 hectoliter at an annual cost to the operator of 13 cents. The rela- 
tive yield from thinnings is naturally very much less, since the trees 
are that much smaller. 

Protection. — When the dune reclamation work began, the commission 
(see p. 173) found it very necessary to have a permanent local force to 
prevent grazing trespass. This trespass was considered forest trespass 
and therefore forest guards were placed in charge, and as early as 1809 
the Prefect of the Gironde decreed that "burning can under no circum- 

^^ Huff el cites the average net yield as $2.22 per acre per year, which agrees closely 
with Bert's estimate of $2.16. 
33 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 183. 



204 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES 

stances extend over more than one-sixth the land owned by each com- 
mune," and the local forest officer must be consulted. It is interesting 
that, dating from 1741, there was a law that there could be no grazing 
for 5 years following the burning of forest land. A similar law is now 
in' force in Tunisia and Algeria to punish the natives for burning over 
grazing ground. 

Even when the tendency to set fire decreased, accidents tended to 
increase the fire danger in a region where the hazard was already very 
great. Notwithstanding the strict rules and fines against setting fire 
within 328 feet of forest, heather, or wood, fires have always done con- 
siderable damage in the maritime pine belt due to inflammable under- 
brush and regeneration, high winds, and drought. During the 10-year 
period, 1883-1892, only 254 acres were burned or 0.0002 of the area 
(protected by the State service) per year and 0.002 per year of the 
communal forest area. In the area not under Federal control the 
relationship between the area burned each year and the area not burned 
was as 0.78 is to 100. In other words, 11,621 acres were burned over 
each year out of a total area of about 1,482,626 acres. 

In the Landes the regulations are extremely strict against trespass 
and against the use of fire by contractors. The following is an example: 

"It is strictly forbidden: 

"1. To smoke, to light matches, or to carry a fire of any kind whatsoever in the 
forest or on forest soU. 

"2. To damage, move, or tear up any stakes, signs, poles, boundary notices, or 
notices of any kind whatsoever erected by administrative authority. 

"3. To remove sand, dry pine needles, sod, or any other product of the forest soil. 
Violations will be followed by prosecution." 

According to Bert : 

"The protection measures include; (1) Installation of tool caches in forest houses 
and in the cutting areas; (2) the establishment of telephone lines connecting certain 
forest houses with the nearest telegraph office; (3) the construction of watch towers 
in the Inspection of Mont-de-Marsan." 

Additional protective measures are: The establishment of charcoal 
pits is not allowed in the interior of pine forests (except in cleared open- 
ings at least 33 feet from the nearest tree); charcoal burning cannot 
be done before the first of Octol^er or after the first of April of each 
year (that is, during the fire season), and the charcoal could not be 
removed until nine days after the burning was finished; stacks of saw- 
mills had to be covered with spark arresters and the ground cleared. 
The conclusion was finally reached that fire lines were indispensable. 
Accordingly main fire lines at right angles to the direction of the wind, 
about 3,280 feet apart and 33 feet wide, were constructed; in addition 



PROTECTION 205 

each forest was divided into compartments of 247 acres, separated by 
fire lines of 33 feet in width. The weeds, grass, and vegetable debris 
were all removed from the lines. As a rule these lines were used to hack- 
fire from, since they alone would not stop the average fire.^^ 

Another important item of protection in the State forests is against 
a root fungus, which greatly decreases growth and ultimately kills the 
trees. It is transmitted through the roots and is controlled by digging 
a trench about 2^ feet deep around infected areas. Such areas are 
detected by the fact that the reproduction within them starts to die. 
Owners claim that this disease usually appears where the roots of living 
trees are injured by fire. That is one reason for not permitting burning 
of charcoal among standing timber. A preventive measure is to thin 
the timber before it reaches the sapling stage.^^ There is some damage 
from caterpillars, and there was some good-sized areas in the State 
forests (near Lacanau) that appeared materially damaged in 1918. 

^^ See p. 275 for additional data on intensive fire protection. 
3s See p. 110 for the details of early thinnings (depressage). 



CHAPTER IX 
GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

Mensuration in Working Plans (p. 206). Summary, Units of Measure, Volume 
Tables, Rule-of-Thumb Methods, Ocular Estimating, Calipering Stands, Stand Graphics. 

Regulation of Cutting (p. 215). Broad Aims of French Regulation Policy, 
Application to United States, Abuses Led to I;egislation, The Policy of "Reserves," 
Summary of Principles and Methods, Management Subdivisions, Rotations and Cutting 
Cycles, The Normal Forest, Regulation of Cut, Pure Area, Diameter Limit b}^ Single 
Trees, Area and Age, Method of 1883, Area (Volume) Allotment by Periods, The 
Gurnaud Method. 

Working Plans (p. 243). General, The Working Plan Report, Chamonix Working 
Plan. 

MENSURATION IN WORKING PLANS 

Summary. — The greatest achievements of French mensuration are : 
(1) The recognition that mathematics and formulse are distinctly second- 
ary to silviculture and that exactness in forest mensuration, especially 
in yield data, is relatively unimportant if there is frequent stocktaking 
and good silviculture. (2) The use of graphics in depicting the stand 
instead of cumbrous, unintelligible tables. (3) The development of 
empirical data for selection forests. (4) Simple and workable methods 
unfettered by the application of theory. ". . . it^ heads straight 
for the desired goal." 

Broilliard, a leader in French silviculture, said, in the preface to the 
second edition of his "Le Traitment des Bois en France" 

" . . . fearing to give too many figures to readers, persuaded, as I still am to-day, 
that mathematics leads silviculture into errors and that equations . . . never dis- 
close the secret of the living forest. The increasing weight of mathematics in forest 
studies is full of dangers, notably in Germany (where the experiment stations engage in 
calculations without end). Too often mathematics works on a false base; it leads to 
the idea of absolute conclusions, always different with the phenomena of nature; mathe- 
matics does not give, moreover, the solution of this simple problem: What is the future 
of a tree, of a stand? . . ." 

On the other hand there are weaknesses: (1) Confusion and variation 
in the use of the cubic meter and in squared log content formulae, and in 
the use of diameters or circumferences. There is a distinct lack of 
standardization. (2) The excessive use of short-cut methods. (3) The 

^ Mensuration in France, b}^ Donald Bruce, pp. 686-690, Journal of Forestry, No. 6, 
Vol. XVII. Donald Bruce and H. H. Chapman kindly reviewed Chapter IX. 

206 



UNITS OF MEASURE 207 

lack of more accurate local volume tables which could have been easily 
and cheaply obtained. (4) Failure, through lack of funds, to keep 
abreast of scientific investigations and to contribute more to forest 
science. 

But the French viewpoint is of great value to the American forester 
even if the details of mensuration practice can rarely be used without 
modification. 

Units of Measure. — The unit of measure for logs, piling, poles, and 
props is the solid cubic meter ^ which contains 35.3 cubic feet or approxi- 
mately 285 board feet log scale. 

Contrary to the general belief in the United States it is agreed in 
France that there is much confusion because the cubic meter is not 
used in a uniform manner, and one writer said: ^ 

"I defy two Frenchmen, living 12.5 miles apart, to understand each other when they 
speak of cubic meters according to the usage of their locality even if they use the same 
tariff." 

This confusion, due largely to different methods of measurement and 
calculation, has led to the demand for a "legal cubic meter" which 
a committee defined as follows: 

"The volume of a log shall be equal to the volume of a cylinder having the circum- 
ference of the log measured at its middle point to the nearest 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) 
and its length measured to the nearest 20 centimeters (8 inches). The measurement 
of the circumference shall be made with a melastic tape at right angles to the axes of 
the log. . . . The vohune (thus obtained) shall be called a legal ^ cubic meter." 

But to be complete there must be standard rules for reductions on 
account of defect or irregularities. The following were proposed: (1) 
Measure between knots or swellings. (2) Where a log becomes irregular 
the purchaser can cut it off and remeasure. (3) Defect deductions to 
be made by joint scale. (4) Logs with checks or lightning marks clear 
to the heart can be rejected. (5) Logs must be at least 6.5 feet in length. 

Cordwood^ is measured by the stere, a stacked cubic meter, and 
is usually cut in 1 meter (3.3 foot) lengths, and in statistical work it is 
sufficiently accurate to count 1 solid cubic meter as yielding 1^ steres of 

2 For a discussion of converting factors see the Introduction. Those who have much 
converting to do should draw a converting-graph based on the best data obtainable for 
the conversion problem in hand. 

3 Solide et Metre Cube, B., S . F . de F — C. et B., Sept. 7, 1908, J. Banchereau. 

* An interesting comparison between the new and old French measures is given on 
pages 14r-19 of Carnet — Agenda du Forestier. Besangon, 1902. Paul Jacquin, Im- 
primeur. It should be noted that in France logs are measured ovtside hark, while in 
the United States log scaling is always inside bark. 

6 See also classes of cord wood and saw timber given under "Sale of Timber," page 
307. 



208 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

piled fuel. Cordwood is frequently sold by the ton; this is an excellent 
system. It compensates at once for species and for seasoning. For 
the measurements of log lengths the French prefer a melastic tape, and 
for diameter ^ an accurate adjustable caliper to take maximum and mini- 
mum diameters, or a diameter tape if only one measurement can be 
taken. The French policy is clearly to avoid unnecessary and costly ac- 
curacy when something less exact will serve just as well. 

Volume Tables. — Volume tables for estimating the cubic (metric) 
contents of standing timber are simpler and more standardized in France 
than in the United States. There are no volume tables in use which give 
the contents of trees in terms of the manufactured product. The fol- 
lowing classes of volume tables are used: 

(1) A "universal" table, based on diameter, total height, and taper 
of a tree (there are also tables giving contents of cylinders of given 
diameter and length which must be reduced by a form factor). 

(2) Merchantable log length table, especially designed for standards 
or for high forest trees, based on diameter and the merchantable length 
of the bole (to a top hmit of 9.8 inches) classified by 2 or 4 meter lengths 
(6.5 to 13.1 feet). 

(3) Cordwood tables, based on the diameter of standards and whether 
(o) very branchy, (6) average, (c) mediocre, or (d) few branches. 

(4) Local volume tables for (a) total or (h) merchantable contents in 
cubic meters based on diameter alone are common and are usually based 
on the type (1) table and on local diameter and height measurements. 
It is customary to give the name of forest, working group, year table was 
made, author, soil, part of tree included, silvicultural system, species, 
altitude, and general quality. 

Cordwood from the top or from branches is estimated by using a ratio 
of the bole; this varies with the species, height of the tree, age, top cutting 
limit for saw timber, and silvicultural system. The results are naturally 
subject to wide variations. An average figure for oak high forest is 
60 per cent to 75 per cent saw timber with 25 per cent to 40 per cent fuel 
(of this fuel one-third is fagots) ; for beech the figures for saw timber 
would be 10 per cent to 20 per cent less; for fir or spruce 80 per cent to 
90 per cent saw timber and 20 per cent to 10 per cent fuel. But in statis- 
tical computations the French usually figure that 100 cubic meters gross 
yield of standing timber will give in (a) hardwoods, 80 cubic meters of 
timber and 20 cubic meters (equal to 30 stacked steres) of fuel; in (b) 
softwood, 90 cubic meters of timber and 10 cubic meters (15 steres) of 
fuel. 

^ Huff el thinks there may be a 5 to 10 per cent difference between the measurements 
and volume computation of a lot of large irregular logs even if great care is taken. 
Much of the data which follows is from Huffel, Vol. II. 



VOLUME TABLES 209 

It is clearly established that trees of the same (a) species, (6) diameter, 
(c) silvicultural system, and (d) height yield a greater volume as they 
increase in age but the variation is usually disregarded in ordinary valua- 
tion surveys, except so far as it is represented in local volume tables. 
The wide variation between local volume tables for the same species and 
diameter is merely a repetition of experience in all countries. But an- 
other complication arises in working plan revisions. It is desired to esti- 
mate the present stand accurately yet to-day's stand must be compared 
with the stand at the last revision because the original stand plus the cut, 
minus or plus the difference between the original stand and the present 
stand, gives an accurate line on growth. It is, therefore, necessary to 
compute the volumes to be compared by the same volume tables. In 
fact, with hundred per cent estimates, each compartment or working 
group is in reality a permanent sample plot which at each working plan 
revision gives fairly exact data on growth and yield. 

The sample volume table which follows is for spruce and fir in the Jura. 
To the figures given 10 per cent must be added if branches are included. 
The volume tables supplied the local officers also give the volume by cir- 
cumference and heights for one to nineteen trees (omitting the volumes 
for ten and twenty trees) to facilitate multiplication when figuring results 
of valuation surveys: 



210 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



■t^ooo^c^i'^ioi^oooi'-i 



■t^GOClrtiMcOiOOt^CiO 



►-9 



•OOTt^LO^t^CiO^fM-^iCt^GCOs 



•cO'^oot^oocjOiMco^cct^cn 



Q 

o 
p 

Oh 
CO 

Pi 
o 

(^ 

w 

pq 
H 

O 

> 

w 

Ph 



•iMc«:)-*icid>.oooiO'-Hcc^Locooo 



■(MCO'#i-0;DOt^OO^(MCO^COt^ 



•(NOO-»ti-*iOOt^G0030i— iCO-^iOCO 



i(MC0C<0-*L'^OI>.00OO'— ic^cc-*o 



■■— i(M(NCO-^iO!Dl>.|>.00050'— i(M->rt<iO 



■r-lrH<MC<)00TtHTj<lClOt^00C3O'-l(MC0'+l 



■'-irt(M(MCOirOTt<LOOt^COC«COiO'— ilMCO 



■ O"— i'-H^(MCOCO'*iCi050t>.OOC30'-H^C^ 



.00'-t^(M(MCO'*i^i001>t^G0050'^(M 



O O O 1— I ■-ht-((McOCO^>C»0 



0000^^(M(MCO 



t-H CO 

do 



n^ S 



i(M(MC<)(N(Neocococoro'*-* 



CALIPERING STANDS 211 

Rule-of-Thumb Methods. — There are various rule-of -thumb methods^ 
all based on the metric system. They are chiefly of value in stimu- 
lating local forest officers to study the laws of diameter, height, and 
volume. 

(1) Bouvard formula: F = | D^H which is somewhat conservative, though used for 
coppice-under-standards . 

(2) d'Auverne formula: V = 7/10 voliune of cylinder of size of middle girth, for 
oak cut to top limit of 11.8 inches. 

(3) Villers-Cottcrcts formula: V in steres = circumference in centimeters minus one 
meter {i.e., 1.70 — 1.0 or 0.7 steres) used for beech locally. 

(4) Algan formula: V = 0.33 D'^H. Used for spruce 5.9 in diameter at small end; 
or V = 0.42 Dm. 

(5) I'lank formula: P = | ND'^. 

In the Vosges it is customary to estimate in "board feet" or planks 4 M long X 0.25 
wide X 0.025 thick or 1/40 plus or minus of a cubic meter. 

Ocular Estimating. — In regular fully stocked stands of coppice or 
young high forest ocular ^ estimating is exceedingly accurate, and coppice 
is rarely estimated by any other method since the number of steres per 
hectare can be gauged if the age and soil quahty are known. Then too 
it must be remembered that each compartment has been cut over for 
generations and where the rotation or treatment has not been modified 
there are usually the records of past cuts to base estimates upon. Such 
ocular estimates for coppice can be made within 90 per cent of the actual 
cut or even closer so that they answer for sale purposes and the price is 
usually a lump sum per hectare. High forest timber, except when in 
the sapling stage, is never estimated ocularly, 

Calipering Stands. — The French measure the diameter or circum- 
ference of standing timber at 1.50 meters (4.92 feet) or 1.30 (4.26 feet) 
above the ground and on hillsides they measure the breast-height point 
from the uphill side of the tree. They often take into account the fact 
that the largest diameters are parallel with the wind or the crown or 
root development; this would apply especially to an intolerant species 
hke the maritime pine in the Landes where there are strong winds from 
the ocean. But generally these points are waived since the errors in 
calculating volumes are even greater. In accurate estimating the mer- 
chantable sawlog length is almost invariably measured or approximated 
in the field; this is especially important with standards. In growth 
studies in coppice-under-standards the length of the merchantable bole 

7 V = Volume in cu. m.; D = d. b. h.; L = length of merchantable bole; H = total 
height, d = middle diameter of standing tree; P = plank; N = number of trees. 

8 A rule-of-thmnb method given by Huff el (p. 120, Vol. II) for estimating mature 
(a) fir or (h) oak stands is to nuiltiply the average merchantable length by from (a) 25 
to {h) 30 the answer being cubic meters per hectare. This illustrates the bearing of 
height on volume in fully stocked stands. 



212 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

is often periodically measured by hand, through the use of ladders or by 
climbing the tree. 

When stands must be calipered, the following principles govern the 
valuation survey: 

(1) Diameter classes are 5 centimeters (or 1.97 inches).^ 

(2) It is not customary to note the height classes of all trees calipered 
except in very large valuable timber; instead, the merchantable height 
of a few normal trees of varying size is secured from felled trees or by 
measurement. The results are averaged graphically and a local volume 
table made for the compartment, cutting area, or working group. The 
height classes are usually 2 to 4 meters (6.5 to 13.1 feet). 

(3) In merchantable stands 100 per cent estimates are almost uniform; 
with cheap labor this is fully warranted. 

(4) In timber sales estimating is always done when trees are marked 
for cutting. The usual and necessary errors in estimating are considered 
6 per cent of the true volume even under favorable conditions; in virgin 
or mature stands they count for possible errors up to 10 per cent to 13 
per cent. But the French defend the volume table method of obtaining 
volume, even in experimental work, against the German and Swiss 
sample tree methods. In other words, they prefer volumes based on a 
local table of 40 to 50 trees rather than on 5 to 10 sample trees chosen by 
mathematical averages^" but selected on the basis of judgment. 

9 The 1-inch diameter classes used by the U. S. Forest Service for its early working 
plans was an absurdity. The writer used 3-inch diameter classes for estimates in western 
yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico. Captain Kittredge reported that 20 cm. cir- 
cumference classes (2^ inch d. b. h. classes) were used in the Cote d'Or. In practice 
the French usually measure regular trees once; and irregular trees twice in order to 
secure the average diameter. 

10 The valuation surveys in private forests bought by the A. E. F. were made as 
follows, according to a report by Dunning: 

Estimators are equipped with calipers and scribes or marking hammers. They 
proceed through the timber in parallel strips, mark each tree to be cut, taking the cir- 
cumference at lm30 from the ground, or in the fir of the Jura at lm50. The tally- 
man repeats each circumference announced to avoid mistakes. Trees from 20 to 30 
cm. in circumference are recorded as poles. In hardwoods trees below 50 cm. are not 
usually marked. 

The estimators rate the height of each hardwood tree in meters usually to a top 
circumference of 60 cm.; if serious crooks, forks, or large limbs occur the height is taken 
as far as a reasonably straight log can be obtained. 

In uniform stands of pine the chief of detachment or tally-man estimates the average 
height for each circumference class, the trees being tallied by 10 or 20 cm. classes, and 
the estimators announce onl}' the circumferences. In open stands of old pine the 
height of each tree is taken. 

In the fir of the Vosges the circumference only is taken, heights being given bj^ 
circumference classes in volume tables, to a top diameter of 20 cm. 

When the average height method is used allowance is made for exceptionally short 



CALIPERING STANDS 213 

border trees or broken trees by diminishing the circumference. 

Average heights are obtained by eye estimates, by measuring sample felled trees, 
or by some simple method such as the use of two sticks of equal length. 

The chief of detachment or tally-man also determines for each stand the average 
middle circumference for each breast-height circumference class. This is usually done 
by eye or by determining the average taper per meter of length by measuring sample 
felled trees. In the large fir of the Jura it is impracticable to estimate the middle cir- 
cumference, and volume is taken from tables based on circumference at lm50 and 
curved heights. 

For felled trees the length and middle circumference outside bark is taken. 

Maritime, Scotch, and Austrian pine are tallied separately. In hardwoods, where 
occasional individuals of several species occur, these are tallied with the more numerous 
species which they most closely resemble, for example, poplars as birch, locust as oak, 
and hornbeam as beech. Sometimes larch is thus tallied as Scotch pine. 

Small trees which would be broken during felling operations are sometimes marked. 

Standing dead trees are tallied if sound. 

Cordwood. — In stands of pine the amount of fire-wood in steres is roughly taken as 
one-fifth of the number of cubic meters of saw timber, unless the chief of detachment 
considers the conditions unusual, when he estimates the variation accordingly. In 
the silver fir forest of Levier, Doubs, the number of steres of fire-wood was taken as 
one-tenth of the number of cubic meters of saw timber. 

For hardwoods the chief of detachment estimates for each stand according to condi- 
tions whether the number of steres of fire-wood is 1, I5, or 2 steres to the cubic meter of 
saw timber. 

Estimates of coppice are made in steres per hectare, according to species, age, density, 
etc., and depend much on the experience of the estimator. 

Reports on private forests consist of the tally (kept much the same as in America), 
the estimates of fire-wood and other products, and a description of the various factors 
of location which affect the value of the timber. 

Computation. — Using the middle circumference and height to a top circumference 
of 60 cm., the volume is taken from a table of contents of cylinders. The same method 
is used for all species, except in the large fir timber of Doubs State Forests where the 
tally-man records the cubic contents of each tree directly in the field from a volume 
table. Although volume tables exist for the pines of the Landes, men of the C. F. E. 
say that no tree tables are used in that office. 

Accuracy. — The methods used are probably as nearly accurate as any in common 
use. For saw timber the principal factor affecting the estimate is height. Pine stands 
are usually uniform and the average height by circumference classes can be estiniated 
closely. 

In the large fir timber in the selection forests of Doubs and Jura, separate volume 
tables are used for distinct site classes where the height growth varies greatly. 

For hardwoods the height of each tree is estimated and French foresters vary greatly 
in their height estimates. One chief of detachment may instruct the men to take heights 
only to the first large branch, fork, or serious crook, while another may insist that 
heights be taken to the top circumference limit as long as the trunk can be divided into 
straight log lengths to eliminate the effect of crook, etc. In hardwoods the height factor 
greatly affects the accuracy of the estimate. 

Cordwood estimates depend much on the experience of the estimator, and can be 
only approximate. Wherever possible measurement of the piled wood after cutting 
should be made. 

For saw timber under American methods of exploitation, check scales of logs after 



214 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

Stand Graphics. — Under the leadership of Schaeffer,^^ now conservator 
at Vesoul, the routine descriptions of selection forest stands (which ''had 
to be done, were a great bore, and were never looked at") have been 
largely replaced by graphics based on the stock sheet for each compart- 
ment and for the forest. The objective is to picture the size classes of the 
stand so the marking will be guided accordingly. This, perhaps, is the 
feature of French mensuration and can be applied in the United States 
under intensive conditions. This method and its interpretation is 
illustrated by Figs. 19 (a) and 19 (6) (after Schaeffer) which depict the 
number of trees per hectare per (5 centimeter) two-inch diameter class at 
breast height in fir-spruce selection forests. Certainly these graphics 
would disclose inaccurate and untrustworthy valuation surveys. 

No. 1 represents a pure high forest of ten acres, where there is not a 
single tree less than 35 centimeters in diameter. It shows at once past 
regeneration has been a failure. 

No. 2 is for a younger stand, similar in character and where no trees less 
than 20 centimeters in diameter, breast-high, have been calipered. 

No. 3 represents a selection high forest, where the number of trees is 
approximately inversely proportional to the squares of the diameters. 
Consequently the curve approaches an hyperbola and the stand is more 
satisfactory to the forester. 

No, 4 shows at once that the stocktaking was carelessly done, for evi- 
dently those who were supposed to caliper did not scrupulously measure 
all trees, but estimated a good many with the eye. This accounts for 
the evident error in classifying more trees 20, 30, and 40 centimeters in 
diameter than trees 25 or 35. In any compartment, of course, certain 
diameter classes may predominate, but there would be no such irregu- 
larity like the teeth of a saw as is shown in No. 4. 

No. 5 represents a forest of 10,000 acres and consequently unevennesses 
have been eliminated but it is clear there are too few trees per acre, 
especially in the larger age-size classes. 

No. 6 is a young pole stand where the large number of stems less than 
20 centimeters in diameter are coming into the merchantable class. The 

removal from the woods will nearly always fall short of the French estimates, especially 
in the large fir timber of the Jura, owing to defect and a certain amount of unavoidable 
breakage. 

Conclusions. — Methods used are as nearly accurate as practicable, when properly 
applied, for standing saw timber, felled trees, and counted material. Cordwood esti- 
mates are only approximate, depending on the experience of the estimator. 

The men are usually capable and experienced enough to apply the methods to 
advantage. 

11 Interpretation des Graphiquos de Peuplements. A. Schaeffer, B. S. F. de F.-C. et 
N., No. 6, 1912. Since the figures are merely to illustrate methods, no conversions to 
American units were made. 



BROAD AIMS OF FRENCH REGULATION POLICY 215 

evolution of a regular stand from the pole stage to maturity is shown in 
graphic No. 10. 

No. 7 shows the progress of a forest toward the normal state. It is a 
forest which was formerly poor but which is becoming more valuable, 
owing to the conservative fellings. The curves show that presently it 
will be more nearly normal. At the first stocktaking the stand was open; 
trees of all diameters developed freely, but now the stand is well stocked 
and the young trees have ceased to increase in number, either (a) being 
eliminated or (b) after a successful struggle for existence have reached 
higher diameter classes. The curve of the third stocktaking is approach- 
ing the normal by a sort of wave movement very characteristic in a 
forest conservatively managed. 

No. 8 represents a forest in poor condition and where the yield is low. 
The old trees continue to accumulate and the density of this old excess 
growing stock is damaging the young growth, which is very deficient. 

No. 9 shows a compartment where, despite the conservative treatment 
and contrary to all prearranged plans, the volume has decreased from 
AtoB. 

REGULATION OF CUTTING 

Broad Aims of French Regulation Policy. — The aim and objective 
of practically all forest legislation during two or three centuries culmina- 
ting in the revised forest code of 1827 was to prevent the destruction, 
diminution, and impoverishment of French public forests in quantity and 
in quality. The success of this legislation depended largely on the press- 
ure for timber or for the capital it represented. The demand was natur- 
ally greatest (1) near the large towns, hke Paris, which were the commercial 
timber centers, and (2) during times of stress, when families and govern- 
ments needed the raw product or money. 

Working plans,^^ or management plans as they are sometimes called, to 
enforce a wise use of forests, were finally required by law simply because 
it was found that systematic forest production with a sustained yield 
could not be obtained without them. Forest history has proved that 
even the trained forester cannot be trusted not to overcut unless he is 
systematically guided and controlled by a working plan that prescribes 
the maximum amount to be cut. And after centuries of practice the 
French consider a sustained yield for each forest and working group 
essential for the following reasons: 

12 Huff el says (in a footnote, p. 15, Vol. Ill): "Out of 504 forests or working groups 
. . . in Meurthe-et-Moselle, there are 230 . . . antedating the forest code 
of 1827, 187 .. . prior to 1789, and 15 . . . prior to 1860, the oldest dating 
from 1726." 



216 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



No.1 





No. 2 



SO 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 GO 65 



lU 15 20 25 30 




No. 4 




20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 



No. 5 



Tnventory. 

Normal Material. 








No. 6 


\ 





— First Inventory. 


\ 


— 


Second Inventory 






Normal Material , 




\ 

\ 

\ 






\, 


1 1 1 1 1 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 GO 65 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 



Fig. 19 (a). — Examples of Stand Graphics. 



BR'OAD AIMS OF FRENCH REGULATION POLICY 217 




No. 7 



First Inventory. 
Second Inventory. 
Third Inventory. 
Normal Material. 



No. 8 




-' .• 



J I L. 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 CO 




20 25 30 35 40 15 SO 55 00 



No. 10 




20 25 30 35 iO 45 50 55 60 

Fig. 19 (6). — Examples of Stand Graphics. 



218 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

1. Local wood markets must be stabilized; and local needs, which can 
only be supplied from certain forests, must be met. 

2. Lumberjacks, and other forest workmen who hve in local villages, 
must be supplied with work. 

3. An annual revenue is necessary for the communes since it takes the 
place of income from taxes; it is not so necessary for the State owning 
forests all over France, but is considered a convenience. 

Working plans are necessary because it is difficult to distinguish be- 
tween the capital or growing stock, which is "property held in trust "^^ 
and the annual income or growth which constitutes the owner's returns. 

The main trouble with forest crops is that they become merchantable 
only after a long time. The yield is essentially periodic. There is a 
final yield at the end of the rotation, and only if thinnings are profitable 
or practicable is there in addition an intermediate yield. After a forest 
is once established, this disadvantage of deferred yield is obviated by hav- 
ing part of the crop mature every year and thus give a sustained annual 
yield, which, if necessary, may be periodic instead of annual. 

The longer the rotation the larger the growing stock and usually with 
long rotations the per cent earned by the capital invested is less than 
with short rotations. For example, a coppice on a rotation of 20 years, 
in theory at least, has less than one-fifth the growing stock when ripe of 
a high forest with a 100-year rotation. In practice, since the high forest 
soil yields more heavily, this disparity is even more marked. Due to the 
small interest returns from long rotations private owners frequently 
favor coppice with a short rotation, notwithstanding the consequent 
damage to the soil. On the other hand, the French State policy has 
been to grow the kind of wood most needed rather than that which 
would be most profitable. 

The beginnings of forest regulation in France make interesting reading 
because often we see conditions depicted which bear some resemblance 
to the conditions during the past decade in the western United States. 
The beginning of systematic cutting in the great Vosges^^ fir-spruce forests 
is of particular interest: 

"At the commencement of our era the Sylva Vosagus belonged to the imperial 
treasury. Later the great abbeys such as Remiremont, Senones, and Moyenmoutier 
divided the ownership of this immense domain with the Lorraine dukes, who inherited 
from the emperors. The Vosges fir stands thus belonged to a few very rich and power- 
ful owners who began a systematic improvement (of the stands) at an early date, an 
improvement not only of grazing and of wood usage but also of fellings for the supply 
of the trade. The method adopted by the Vosges foresters for this objective was the 
construction of sawmills. Set up on small streams which suppUed the power . . . 

13 d'Amenagement. Puton, pp. 1-18. 
"Huff el, Vol. Ill, pp. 108-110. 



APPLICATION TO UNITED STATES 219 

they were pretty well over the whole region at the end of the 15th century. . . o 
The sawmills, which belonged to the dukes and abbeys who had built them, were leased 
with the stipulation that the number of trees that could be sawed would be furnished 
each year. These trees were cut in the watershed where the sawmill was located . . . 
or here and there. Thus there was a real selection felling, with the yield in number 
of trees, fixed not by the productive capacity of the forest, but according to the out- 
put of the sawmill . . . about 200 fir of average size per year. When the country 
tributary to a sawmill was exhausted the forest was closed and the felling was transferred 
to another area. Thus the Lorraine foresters obtained an exact idea of the relation 
between the area of the forest and the number of trees which it could annually yield 
without being depleted." 

Application to United States. — The theoretical need of working plans 
has been recognized by the U. S. Forest Service for the last ten years 
but no systematic recording of management plans has yet been done 
except on a very few Forests. As a result, a number of National Forest 
divisions or working groups have possibly been overcut; later on this 
may mean hardship to the local interests. Obligatory working plans are 
needed to-day for all National Forest areas which are being intensively 
logged. It is not enough to refuse to make sales because of fear of over- 
cutting — there must be a definite scheme planned in advance. Other- 
wise the Forests will unquestionably suffer. Such is the lesson from 
France. And it is equally important to provide transportation to tap 
virgin timber where literally millions of dollars of raw product is going to 
waste every year, notwithstanding the timber famine which has been 
predicted. 

We must, of course, recognize that we are in a transition period, and 
when regulating virgin stands the excess growing stock must be reduced. 
Moreover the practical conditions often make it appear advisable to 
make very large sales so as to compete with offerings of private owners. 
There are forests, like the Plumas, where some over-cutting is probably 
necessary because the Forest Service owns but a small proportion of 
the timber, the bulk being in private hands. In such case the choice 
may be between (a) leaving islands of inaccessible uncut timber or 
(6) overcutting. In such case (6) may be the lesser evil. But even ad- 
mitting that our present rotations, cutting cycles (and even our silvicul- 
tural practice) are transitory, yet, even then, obligatory regulation is 
necessary for our public forests, for even the forester cannot be trusted to 
cut by rule-of-thumb. This is doubly true where many of our officers 
are not technically trained. Broad-gauge regulation does not signify 
at once tying to a mean annual growth nor a strict academic sustained 
annual yield — concessions must often be made to meet practical demands 
— but let us have our regulation down in "black and white," in orderly 
and systematic working plans. Such detailed plans are generally non- 
existant, and yet are needed. It is open to argument whether even large 



220 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

virgin areas of timber, distant from transportation, should be heavily cut 
(as they may be) without first having a working plan to show how the 
removal of the over-mature timber will merge into the desired forest 
management. 

There is a striking analogy between the early crude regulation in 
the Vosges and the 1905-1918 "regulation" on some of our National 
Forests where the yield area unit or working group may correspond to 
the area required to supply one or more sawmills. In the Vosges "how- 
ever numerous were the sawmills, they touched only a small portion of 
the immense stand." The excess of supply over demand unquestion- 
ably saved these Vosges forests just as our early logging of only a small 
portion of the stand on private forests, because the rest was unmerchant- 
able, saved large areas from total destruction. But with a more in- 
tensive market these conditions have changed ; everything — even small 
trees — are merchantable, so we must look to the future. Until 1919 
on our National Forests the great danger was that real mandatory 
(obligatory) regulation '^ was not generally in effect. From 1905 until 
about 1918 the administrator has been more powerful than the working 
plan expert, because the expert has not formulated a practical plan — 
something exceedingly difficult because of changing conditions, unstabil- 
ized and unforeseen local demands, and economic factors which dictate 
the export of all good grades of lumber to far distant regions. Even 
with obligatory regulation recognized as a necessity there is danger 
in making sales for 8 to 10 years. With long-term sales and sales for 
enormous amounts to one company, as have been planned and made in 
a few instances, the tendency is to sell immense tracts and thus to bind 
the local forester to an economic lumberman's policy for years to come. 
Because of the frailty of human foresight, these contracts which bind 
the Forest Service to a long continued economic exploitation are prob- 
ably unwise. This means that an administration in 1910 may blindly 
bind the administration in 1930 to a policy of overcutting a locality 
in the West. The administrator of 1925 may want to build a privately- 
owned railroad as a separate enterprise and sell in small amounts. 
This he could not do because perhaps ten or fifteen townships in ques- 
tion had been sold to a great lumber corporation on a 20-year sale; 
once the investment is made can further sales be refused without hard- 
ship on the operator even if his plant has been amortised in the mean- 
time? Shall a local forest industry be wiped out? I believe such a 
situation is almost unique in the history of our Government. These 
big sales are justified by the necessity of selling overmature timber which 

^* Since this was written it is understood that the Forest Service has begun the study 
of regulation in earnest and that long-term sales are to be largely confined to Alaska. 
It is hoped that the change in policy will be effective — but the lesson holds good. 



ABUSES LED TO LEGISLATION 221 

is wasting — something commendable in itself — but they bind the 
future administrations of our Government to a policy which may not be 
wise at that time. Suppose the timber were required for local use by 
small isolated communities whose development was not foreseen when 
the long-term sale was made. The lumber company could not store the 
timber until needed. It must be exported where the demand for a 
large output is keen. It would be better to develop Government or 
private transportation as a separate business and then sell to small mills 
for short periods. The details of long-term sales have been A\dsely worked 
out but the broad-gauge policy is at fault. Would the present Forest 
Service administrator willingly sell the Kaibab Forest to one company 
to secure development? I believe not, because the sentiment has changed 
within the past year. How do large sales affect regulation? It means 
that to justify the very large cut, required for big sales, which removes 
one-half to two-thirds or more of the stand, the working groups are ex- 
tended to take in as much growing stock as is needed to yield the annual 
cut of the large sale. Under such conditions the real regulation for the 
benefit of the future local community may be impossible. There must be 
smaller working groups, smaller sales, and permanent road and railroad 
transportation, because the long-term sales such as have been sanctioned 
by the Secretary of Agriculture are merely compromises between destruc- 
tive lumbering and forestry. There is no need to make such compro- 
mises, and these sales should be abandoned. The intensive, energetic, 
and serious campaign for real regulation, which began in the fall of 1919 
on all National Forests, based on silviculture, local economic require- 
ments, and yield should result in excellent management plans — needed 
but not yet in effect. 

Abuses Led to Legislation. — Anyone who doubts the folly of the 
present forest destruction in the United States, by the private owner 
who treats his forest as a mine instead of an annual crop, should read 
and study the forest history of overcutting in France. The campaigns 
against the use of forest capital for income did not always succeed; it 
took a national need for timber to make regulation possible and to stop 
abuse and overcutting. It was a succession of ups and downs for forest 
conservation, and much of the overcutting was in royal forests under 
trained foresters. The great conservationist Colbert showed clearly by 
his appointment of a special forest commission that he did not trust 
the foresters in charge because he had found that the tendency had been 
to overcut. Let us examine a few instances of the early vicissitudes of 
forest control. In 1596 an attempt was made to prescribe the amount 
of timber to be sold annually in royal forests. The plan was never 
followed and in 1612 was formally suppressed. In 1614 new restrictive 
rules were made especially for the Normandy forests but abuse and 



222 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

ovci'cut t-iiij;' contiiuuHl. In HHU royul forests wvvo closed to cutting as 
a " rcl'oiiiialioii against i'on^st abuse " and in 1()()2 ('oll)ort started a 
I'ecounaissiuuH^ and stocktaking. Colbert's'" cod(! of 1()G9, which above 
all was "an oigaiiic law and one of policing," was the fii'st stej) that really 
counted because it became part of th(> recognized law of tlie country, 
and though it was evaded and was modified from time to time, it re- 
mained a bulwai'k against forest piolligacy. lu KUiS (U^finitc; arrange- 
ments were made for working plans, which included a check and a map 
of the boundaries, estimates of timl)er, (lescrii)ti()ns of the soil, species, 
merchantable siz(\s, loc^al needs, rotations, and special data on timber 
suitable for ships. But certain abuses continued even after 1()()9; poor 
location of saU^s, high stumps, waste and failure to reserve sufficient 
standards. 

The Policy of "Reserves". — In French fon'st management the "re- 
serve" relers to the growing stock or timber capital lu^ld in ex(^ess of the 
stock which would normally be provided by the working phin. The need 
of reserving a nest egg of timbei- in comnumal forests (in excess of the 
noi'mal glowing stock), a policy continued to the present day, is clear 
when we look back at past improvidence. It was natural to "lean over 
backwards" and to retain excess growing stocks. And tluring the war 
it was fortunate for the allies that these reserves existed, for without 
tlu>m the war shortage^ would have ])een more acute. 

liuffel"' thus summarizes the history of "reserves": "Commenced in 
the Kith century they then aimed solely at the general welfare," at the 
(wpense of the clergy and communes and w(M(> therefore ineffective. 
Reestablished in the 17th century, they aimed at the private and public 
interest. But during the I8th century, because of poor execution, the 
so-call(>(l reserv(\s impoverished more forests than they eni'iched. In the 
IDth century the reserves were maintained for the comnunuvs and (>spe- 
cially for th(Mr finances. They wer(> more erf(>ctive as the administrative^ 

"■' As ;i Hint t CI' of I'licl I lie wood raininc prcdiclcd liy ( 'olhcrt never ;iri"ive(l booauso ho 
l>;ise(l liis predici ion on ;m increased demand I'oi' cord-wood wlierciis fuel wood has been 
n^placed l>y coal, oil and elect ricily. It is not unlikely thai a real world i'uuhvr famine 
will never arrive hecanse an (iciilc shortage will hrin^; pressure and l(>a(l to sul)slitii((>s. 
But from (he viewpoint of national eflicieney and health forests will become more neces- 
sary as our civilization and settlement intensities. It is interestinfj; to compare I lie 
Uross and net revemie (cited hy Iluffel, p. 25(5, Vol. Ill) before and after the ("olherl 
reforms. In 1()S2 the area of the royal forests was 1,803, S;5t ar|)ents (about- \.'^ million 
acroa). In the years KitiO-tiO, the average fi;ross revemie was 1 17,(')2;} livres, the av(T- 
afro net revonuo was 325,099 livres; 1(580-89 the average gross revenue was 1,557,363 
livres, the average net revenue was 1,110,773 livres. 

" Vol. Ill, pp. SI 85. The history of "fonds do reserve" is from IIufTel who is the 
best author on l''rencli forest, ooonomics. The French reserve to-day is usually separate 
from (h(> worUinn ^roup being systematically cut over; it is held for emergencies and 
cut when re(iuired. 



THE POLICY OF "RESERVES" 223 

control became firmer. The next development in the objective of the 
reserves was to stabilize revenue in case of an act of Providence or errors 
in management. Contrary to ordinary German usage, the French insist 
on carrying more than a "normal" growing stock. This, they argue, will 
stand them in good stead if there are windfalls, insect attacks, or wars. 
This question of a reserve in publicly owned forests is important, because 
we are about to begin the regulation of our National Forests, It is 
therefore of interest to examine how and why the policy of reserves was 
established in France. As early as 1549 it was ordered "that a third of 
the forests belonging to the communal citizens shall be reserved for growth 
in high forest." In 1561 this was extended to include royal forests but 
the reserve was reduced from one-third to one-fourth. In 1580 the 
order was cancelled by Henry III, but 17 years later, because of con- 
tinued forest destruction, the order of 1561 was reestablished and Col- 
bert's code of 1669 provided that owe-/o?/r//i the communal and clerical^^ 
forests over 25 acres in area, conifers excepted, should be thrown into a 
reserve. From 1706 to 1730 the policy of reserves was suppressed in 
portions of France, but the principle was firmly esta])lished and Avas em- 
bodied in the working plans for communal broadleaf forests which were 
almost all completed by 1750. It was found best to have this "quarter 
in reserve" separated from the rest of the forest so that an inspector 
could determine on the ground whether a bona fide reserve had actually 
been made. And to-day these reserves are still considered advisable in 
communal forests, as provided by the revised code of 1827, because if the 
cutting in the regular Avorking groups, for example, is stopped by having 
to clean up heavy windfall, then the reserved portion can be worked dur- 
ing the crisis. This furnishes employment for local laborers and safe- 
guards the continuance of a revenue from special fellings in the reserve. 
Where, as in some instances, the reserve was not separated out on the 
ground but merely banked by having an excess growing stock through 
cutting only three-fourths the estimated yield called "fonds de reserve 
a assiette mobile," the silvicultural results were less satisfactory, but the 
reserve supply of fine, large timl^er strengthened the special industries 
which depended on a local supply of high-class logs. Before the war the 
long rotations so prevalent in State forests constituted a strong reserve 
which war requirements largely reduced. As much as 15 to 18 annual 
yields were cut in 1917-1918 in some fir (Jura) forests. Judging by the 
experience of France, our public forests in the United States should not 
be cut up to their full capacity unless it is locally essential from the view- 
point of sound silvics. Under American conditions perhaps the best 

18 The A. E. F. bought a part of the forest of Citeaiix (Loire-et-Cher) so it is interest- 
ing to know that the Citeaux monks protested for over 50 years against the reserve re- 
quired by the law of 1669. 



224 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

way to obtain a reserve is to use rotations somewhat longer than is 
indicated by the culmination of mean annual growth, or frankly to adopt 
a physical rotation and grow the large timber that the private owner can 
never afford to produce because of the lower financial returns. 

Summary of Principles and Methods. — French Government regula- 
tion ^^ of cutting shows "for a given period'-'' when, how, where, and 
how much should be cut in the forest." 

With more complicated silviculture, where the number of felhngs 
must be increased to secure natural regulation, or with windfall or other 
accidents, regulation is naturally more tlifficult and requires modifica- 
tion oftener than with clear cutting. With simple coppice, regulation, 
once wisely established, will last indefinitely, provided the rotation 
remains unchanged. 

The management of a forest includes the (a) preliminary work upon 
which the working plan is based and (b) the regulation of felling which 
is based on the fundamental statistics collected under (a). French writers 
recognize only four essential kinds of yield regulation: 

(1) By area, which is simple but entails sacrifices if parts of the forest 
are irregular and if too rigidly applied to secure an orderly sequence of 
age classes. 

(2) By number of trees, usually with a diameter limit system.^^ 
This gives a variable volume yield and has been abandoned, except for 
experimental purposes, with the exception of selection beech coppice 
(talHs furete). In India this method, really a crude volume method, 
is still extensively used possibly partly because of the fact that coolie 
labor is used to collect working plan valuation survey data. 

1^ The following nianagoincnt terms (Frencli torms and American equivalents) are 
used by French writers: Reglenient d'exjjloitation (cutting plan). Proces-verbal 
d'amenagement (working plan report). Possibilite (yield, amovnit forests can furnish 
without diniinishing revenue). S6rie (working group which forms a distinct economic 
unit). Rotation (cutting cycle). Revolution (rotation). Affectation p6riodique 
(periodic block, cut over during the period). Produits normaux (product or yield pre- 
scribed by permanent working plan). Produits normaux pr6vus (abnormal regenera- 
tion fellings). Produits extraordinaires (cutting of reserve, in communal forest). 
Produits princiipeaux (yield of mature timber, final regeneration fellings). Produits 
intermcdiares (thinnings) . 

20 Huffel, already cited. 

2' Where all trees over a fixed diameter are cut by the so-called diameter limit method 
brought to the United States by Gifford Pinchot and first described by Lorenz in France 
in 1807, there is great danger of irregular yields and of overcutting virgin stands where 
age class normality is rarely found. Huffel says, "such a system can evidently be applied 
only to forests very nearly normal. In a fir stand rich in large trees, seedlings, and 
saplings, but poor in average sized trees, it would result in a rapid and ill-considered 
cutting of all the old timber in a short period of superabundance, which would be fol- 
lowed by a period of largely reduced fellings or even by a complete suspension of income." 



MANAGEMENT SUBDIVISIONS 225 

(3) By volume, which is supple, difficult to calculate, requires short 
periods between working plan revisions and frequent inventories and is 
somewhat dangerous, since it is apt to lead to overcutting if the growth 
is largely overestimated. 

(4) By area and volume, a combination of (1) and (3). This is the 
modern method of regulation except for coppice stands which can usually 
be regulated correctly by area after making suitable allowances for soil 
quality (see page 232). 

Management Subdivisions. — The great lesson in a study of the 
details of European forest management is that in dealing with nature 
'perfection is impossible. Regeneration is usually not complete; there 
are windfall and insect attacks to throw out yield calculations and create 
disorder silvically and financially. Until the forester learns this lesson 
he cannot create proper pictures of the future forest, especially if he 
follows the ideal of natural regeneration, which will usually be the rule 
in the United States for some years to come. 

In systematizing the cut or in regulating a forest there are two kinds 
of management work: (1) ''Preliminary work . . . the study of 
physical conditions, growth, and the economics of exploitation. (2) 
Essential work . . . the regulation of felling." 

After deciding on the classes of product desired, based on the local 
or general industrial requirements (see "Rotation," page 226), and the 
system'" of silviculture necessary to the objects of the State (see Chapter 
V) the first important step in the systematic management of a forest is 
to form so-called management ^^ subdivisions, for without these no 
yield regulation is possible. Management divisions rest fundamentally 
on two bases: (a) silvicultural systems and (b) economic units. A priori, 
simple coppice is not mixed with high forest but forms separate sections; 
these sections are then formed into working groups "destined to form 
distinct economic units with distinct cutting cycles and a sustained 
yield." Whether a section is divided into one or more working groups 
or whether the working group may comprise one or more sections de- 
pends on the size of the section and the economic conditions. Usually 
in France the section of high forest in State forests forms more than one 
working group and the section of coppice only one. This is immaterial 
to our consideration of the subject of French public forest regulation. 

22 In France there is always a presumption in favor of the former method of treat- 
ment which is the result of centuries of evolution. A change in treatment involves 
financial sacrifices and has usually been brought about by a change in market, which 
would justify a conversion from coppice to high forest, or an error in the original choice 
of treatment through failure to secure natural regeneration. 

23 French administrative subdivisions built up from the beat, the forest, the canton, 
the inspection and the conservation are not treated in detail (see Chapter X, p. 273). 



226 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

From the American viewpoint it is interesting to note that the areas 
covered by each working group in France are usually small — 1,000 to 
1,300 acres — but it should be emphasized that this is due to the in- 
tensive economic conditions. In France a small valley may supply a 
lumber-jack village in the mountains with its sale of logs essential to 
the continuance of its waterpower sawmill. If this valley is 15 to 20 
miles from a railroad, up a steep grade, the cost of obtaining the neces- 
sary local supply of lumber from a large producing center would be pro- 
hibitive. Without steady work during the winter months, when farm- 
ing is impossible, the laborers would have to migrate or give up their 
home life. These conditions often explain the small working groups, 
which cost more trouble and money to establish, but which hold the 
local population. For parts of New England it is the ideal which public 
forests should strive to imitate, but it must be admitted that the more 
working groups there are, the more difficult and complicated is the log- 
ging, since the sales must be smaller. 

According to the teaching at Nancy "the solid base of the whole 
management structure, the indispensable criterion of its precision, the 
incessant guide of administration, the necessary means of the control of 
operations and of the results obtained" is the compartment sub-division. 
Under intensive conditions this is usually between 15 and 40 acres in 
area and, unless soil quality varies greatly, the compartments in one 
forest do not vary greatly in area. An important exception is where 
the regulation is by area and where to obtain a nearly equal annual cut 
it is necessary to increase the size of compartments, where the poorer 
soil gives a smaller yield per acre. The main criticism of compart- 
ment l)oundaries, as found in French State forests, is that they are some- 
times too artificial. The soil, exposure, logging roads, ridges, valleys, 
canals, and railroads should all govern the shape and boundary of the 
compartment, but usually the boundaries in hilly country should be per- 
pendicular to the logging road to facilitate logging. The so-called 
"etoile," so common in level forest subdivisions, is more important from 
the scenic or shooting viewpoint than from the standpoint of logging. 

Rotations and Cutting Cycles. — The rotations are based on the object 
of the owner and are determined by technical, silvicultural, economic, 
or financial considerations as limited by silvicultural possibilities. Ac- 
cording to Fernow a rotation is "the time through which the crop is 
allowed to grow normally until cut and reproduced." 

The viewpoint in India as expressed by D'Arcy ^^ is contrary to the 
European conception of rotation, except in selection forests in France: 
"the exploitable age of a forest crop is the age at which the individual 

24 D'Arcy, W. E. Preparation of Forest Plans in India. Calcutta, 1898, 3d edition. 



ROTATIONS AND CUTTING CYCLES 227 

trees furnish the kind of produce most wanted." Endres says -^ that 
"by rotation period or rotation is meant that time which elapses under 
normal conditions between the planting and the utilization of a stand. 
In the case of the working group the rotation is the average time of grow- 
ing merchantable material which is the fundamental consideration in 
working plan calculations." Variations from the normal may be due 
to unusual silvicultural, financial, or economic conditions. Rotation 
is not to be confused with cutting-cycles ^^ in selection forests, which 
is the period elapsing between cuts on the same area. Obviously in 
selection forests the length of the cutting cycle has an important in- 
fluence on the amount removed, and the frequency of cut also has a 

25 Endres, pp. 220-221. 

26 There are strong arguments in favor of a long cutting period. The longer the 
time between cuts the more time will be allowed for eradicating damage caused by log- 
ging. When it is necessary to cut a amall amount per acre over a large area it neces- 
sarily increases the cost of logging. Some argue that the cutting cycle should not be 
less than the time which it will take the tree to pass from one diameter class to the follow- 
ing. On the other hand well-known writers, like M . Gazin, argue that the cutting cycle 
should be very short — 5 or 6 years — in order to secure the yield without opening up 
the stand too much and without the necessity for heavy cuttings. If, for example, the 
growth per cent is 4, a cutting cycle of 5 years means removing an amount equal to 20 
per cent of the original volume; with a 10-year cutting cycle 40 per cent must be re- 
moved; and with 15 years, 60 per cent, which is certainly too much from a cultural 
point of view. A short cutting cycle, moreover, enables the removal of dead and 
dying trees which otherwise would lose a great deal in value. As a general rule, the 
more intensive the treatment the shorter the cutting cycle. With the recognized 
tendency to coniferous forests, intensive treatment becomes more and more necessary 
if the spruce, fir, or pine is to be favored in the cutting. Moreover, recent yield in- 
vestigations show that the growth of coniferous stands is much more than had been 
supposed. Schaeffer, a specialist in fir forests, advocates neither the very short nor 
the very long cutting cycle, but has called attention to the possibility of cutting over 
the same ground twice during one cycle. This double cut idea is only advocated, how- 
ever, for the rich compartments, since one cut per cycle would be sufficient for the 
areas where conditions of growth are less favorable. He says: "The cutting cycle of 
16 years, usually followed under average conditions in the Savoie Alps, can be con- 
tinued with 8 years between the cut. In calculating the yield with conservatism it 
will result in certain compartments realizing every 16 years 30 per cent or more of the 
stand. This volume cannot be secured at one time without endangering the future of 
the stand." Two cuts, therefore, would be justified during the course of the formal 
felling cycle. However, it should be recognized that in exceptionally rich forests it 
would be possible to reduce the cutting cycle to 12 years and the interval between the 
two cuts to 6 years. On the other hand, in certain stands where the time necessary for 
trees to pass from one diameter class to another is 40 years, 20 years would be a 
better felling cycle, but instead of fixing the length of the cutting cycle arbitrarily 
Schaeffer advocates the determination of the number of years which it takes a tree to 
pass from one diameter class to another, and adopts this figure, provided during this 
cutting cycle each compartment will be cut over twice, but after the first cutting no 
new stocktaking need be made. (De la Duree de la Rotation dans les Futaies Jar- 
dinees. A. Schaeff'er, 1907. B. de S. F. de F. — C. et B.) 



22S (iOVI'IliNMKNT lU'XiULA'I'lON AND WOllKINC PLANS 

direct bcuiiii}; on the tunomii that is lost t liioujiili decay; consequently 
there is a tend(>iu'y with intensive nianag;emet»t to short cuttinfi; cycles of 
from 5 to 10 years. With extensive management lonf;-er cutting cycles 
are unavoidable. In Oregon (western yellow pine) a cut-ting cycle of 
50 to ()0 years has been tcMitaiively adoptiMl, obviously far too long wluni 
the market is establislied. In France, under most intensive conditions, 
the cutting cycle is 5 to 8 years; under less intensive conditions 9 to 18 
years, and rarely more than this. The cutting cycle is usually a sub- 
nmltii)le of the rotation; witii a cutting cycle of 5 years it is i)resumed 
that T) per cent of the st:ind will be cut ev(M-y 5 years, with a cutting 
cycl{> of 10 years 10 per cent would l)e cut every 10 years, and with a 
cutting cycle of 2t) y(>ars 20 per cent must be cut ev(M\v 20 years. This 
has an inipoiiaiit ell'ect on piactical logging, es|)ecially in the United 
Stat(>s wher(> a, considerable cut is usually essential to justify logging 
investments. Short, cutting cycles which are best for the cultural needs 
of the stand ai'e only possible under int.eiisive conditions. 

The t(Midency is to have too nariow an idea of what length of rotation 
means. For exampl(\ if H-year-old transplants are used in a plantation, 
after clear cutting, which is allowed to giow 100 years, the rotation in 
this case would b(> 100 years ratluM' than 105 years, since the age of the 
transplants at the time used would be omitted in th(> calculation. On 
the other hand it is r(>cognize(l that liie lengt h of the rotation is shortcMied 
l)y the use of well-formed transi)lants simply becaus(> the stand matures 
soon(>r. Fre<iuent and early thinnings are of the utmost impoiiance in 
affecting the length of a, rotation. With thinnings the stand will become 
mature eaili(^r than if left unthinned. It must be borne in mind that 
while the forc^st as a whole nuiy be numaged accoi'ding to s|)ecifie(l I'ota- 
tions yet individual stands may be cut before or after the age fixed by 
the rotation because of accidents, market conditions, or numerous other 
consid(>rations. Still anothei' jjoint worthy of emphasis is that it is 
usually sudicient if the rotation can b(> established to the nearest decade; 
it is splitting haiis to (igure to the exact year when coniiMiting the 
rotation. 

According to one Avritcr: '-^ " It has often not Ixmmi appreciated that the 
rotation actually employed is not that corresponding to the age of the 
smallest trees felled, but of the nundier of years in the felling cycles in 
excess of this." In India economic conditions necessitate an annual 
felling area, an average tree best suited to the objects of the manage- 
ment, sulliciently heavy fellings to insuie n'gcMieration, and, of less 
importance, a felling cycle which shall be a sub-multiple of the rota- 
tion. 

2Milxs(;iK'ck, A. D. "Tlic True Scioctiun System." Indian I'orester, 1013, i)p. 
427-430. 



ROTATIONS AND CUTTING CYCLES 229 

One of the chief difficulties in computing rotations, and especially 
financial rotations, is that the forester must use present statistics or the 
trend of present statistics for calculations which pretend to answer 
management problems on the basis of unknown or roughly approxi- 
mated conditions a half century or a century hence — obviously im- 
possible to fathom. But the proper regulation viewpoint is that the 
problem should be solved for the present on the basis of the best avail- 
able data on the assumption that when the working plan is systemati- 
cally revised these calculations will be recomputed and brought up to 
date. The fact that a revised and altered answer to the rotation prob- 
lem will be certain is no reason for not doing our best with available 
statistics. As a matter of policy it is safe to estimate future conditions 
based on the trend of economic conditions, rather than to follow blindly 
present stumpage prices, present cost values, present current interest 
rates, and market requirements for forest products. The best regulation 
imphes some attempt to fathom the future. We know from past history 
that forest conditions change; therefore to follow blindly present condi- 
tions we arrive at the least accurate predictions. There is a middle 
ground between following to-day's data on the one hand and on the 
other of making unwarranted guesses at the future. Moreover, we must 
realize that our calculations are at best approximations and therefore 
the minutia may often be omitted with profit and propriety. 

Efficient thinnings not only enable the forest to grow timber of a 
specified size in fewer years, but they increase seed production and 
promote earlier seed crops, they decrease the date of the culmination 
of mean annual growth, and, as Endres puts it, "The greatest benefit 
is felt where the highest soil rent is maintained. It is recalled that 
large, early yields produce large soil rent and vice versa ... a stand 
that has been thinned up to the ni\\ year will have higher value than 
one that has not been thinned." 

In intensive regulation, as for example in parts of New England, the 
forester must, in theory, distinguish between the rotation for a particular 
stand and the rotation for a working group which is composed of a number 
of stands of varying quality, but in the West, in northern Arizona for 
example, a rough general average rotation for even an entire region 
will usually be a sufficiently close approximation for conditions preva- 
lent while National Forests are being organized. Even in a selection 
forest such as Chamonix (see p. 252) the French prescribe one technical 
rotation for Norway spruce and larch based on a rough proportion of 
the length of time it takes to grow the two species weighted according 
to the aggregate volume present. This rightly emphasized the futility 
of minute mathematical calculations for the solution of a problem which 
demands only an approxijnate answer. 



230 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

No strictly financial rotations ^^ have been established on public 
forests in France. The nearest approach to a high forest financial 
rotation is with maritime pine and Scotch pine, but even here the usual 
public forest rotations are 10 to 30 years more than would probably be 
indicated by soil rent calculations. Even coppice rotations are usually 
10 to 20 years longer than soil rent rotation, but are sometimes calcu- 
lated on the best gross money returns. 

Technical rotations in the United States are of more than mere histori- 
cal interest. Here a technical rotation, especially under conditions 
existing in the West, might be the final rotation chosen. Take the case 
of a watershed which is most suitable for producing railroad ties, because 
railroad ties alone could be floated down a drivable stream as on the 
Carson National Forest, Arizona. Here a technical rotation based on the 
length of time it took to grow ties of given dimensions is clearly indicated. 
The exact length, in this instance, would depend on the most suitable 
period for growing the quality of tie which yielded the largest net return 
on the investment, not taking into consideration compound interest 
charges (according to C. F. Korstian) unless the data for financial calcu- 
lations were available. 

In French Government selection forests technical rotations are usually 
chosen which will produce the kind of material most in demand by the 
public, so as to support local industries of value to the economic life of 
the locality. This kind of rotation, under the economic conditions 
existing in the Vosges, Jura, or Alps has been severely criticized by 
German foresters because of the financial losses usually involved. The 
German viewpoint as expressed by Endres '^^ is : 

"Were we to apply the technical rotations to even aged high forests, producing 
mainly large timber, great financial losses would take place. However, the policy of 
bringing about a mixture of species in order to meet market requirements or demands 
is apparently correct . . . it is in keeping with sound forestry because it also 
maintains soil fertihty. . . . The technical rotation may also be used by the State 
for social and political reasons . . . but the technical rotation can only be recog- 
nized when production costs . . . are of no consequence to the owner." 

Undoubtedly there are some economic rotations on French State 
coppice forests where the objective is to get the maximum quantity of 
wood. The silvicultural rotation idea, based on the limitation of the 
species to reproduce or to resist decay, is always present but is never 
the chief factor — which is always physical — namely, the product 
most necessary for local or general French industry.^" Rotations may 

28 No references have been found in French working plans based on maximum soil 
rent or maximum forest rent. For statistical data on rotations see page 54. 

» Endres, pp. 243-244. 

™ The rotation in France is ordinarily based on the length of time it takes a tree to 
grow to exploitable size; or, in other words, it is purely a technical rotation. For 



REGULATION OF CUT 231 

be temporary where it is clearly recognized that the rotation adopted 
is a temporary expedient (see p. 191). 

The Normal Forest. — The normal forest with its normal distribution 
of age classes, normal increment, and normal growing stock is not used 
by the French Government in its regulation. Where the normal forest 
is used in working plans it is the empirically normal stand based on 
selected average local stand tables which show the volume in cubic 
meters and the number of trees by age classes. Schaeffer, in his de- 
velopment of working plans for selection fir stands in Savoie and Haute- 
Savoie, used this empirical normal stand as a basis of comparison, 
especially for marking the fellings prescribed by the working plan (see 
p. 256). 

Regulation of Cut. — The regulation of the cut comprises two dis- 
tinct operations: (1) The final fellings, regulated by area or volume or 
both, which naturally constitute the chief return. These are regulated 
by the working plan in general terms while much depends on the progress 
of regulation and accidents: "A more complete regulation is necessary 
for administration; year by year there must be prescribed the place, 
the kind, and the quantity of the fellings to make." (2) Intermediate 
fellings or thinnings, which are not regulated by volume but by area. 
This form of regulation is. also applied to the cork-oak bark collections 
and to the resin crops from maritime pine. 

The essential regulation of French public forests may be classified as 
follows : ^^ 

example, in a slow growing forest, like Risoul, the rotation is 180 years, while in La 
Grande Cote, where the growth is much better, the rotation is reduced 30 years to 150 
years. In the forest of La Joux, notwithstanding the rapid growth, the rotation is 150 
years, because in this State forest very large wood was desired (Bois de Marines). 
The low returns from long technical rotations may be somewhat increased by the 
higher prices secured from large-sized timber. 

31 Masson's method, like Von Mantel's, which consists in dividing the total growing 
stock of the forest by half the length of the rotation, is well known. In applying this 
method there is realized each year a fraction of the stand represented by 2/R. This per 
cent of realization is not a function of the rotation. It will be 2 per cent for a rotation 
of 100 years, 1.43 per cent for 140 years, 1.12 per cent for 180 years, and 1 per cent for 
200 years. It is necessary to have a normal stand or the cut is too high for an im- 
poverished forest and too low for a rich, well-stocked forest. In order to obviate this 
error Schaeffer worked out a correction figure based on a knowledge of the stand per acre. 
(No. 3, 1905, B. de S. F. de F. — C. et B.) 

The Masson formula was used extensively in the Vosges in the middle of the last 
century and gave fairly accurate results, simply because the fir rotation was usually 
140 years, and by the formula the yield was thus 1 .4 per cent which happened to agree 
exactly with the average site of the Baden yield tables for silver fir. This method is 
no longer in use (see Appendix K (2)), because the fundamental assumptions, on 
which the formula is based, are in error. 



232 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



Method of regulating the cut 



Pure area 

Pure area 

Pure area 

Pure area 

Diameter limit by single trees 

Area and thickness of bark 

Area and age 

Method of 1883 . . 

Area — volume allotment by periods 



System of cutting 



(a) Coppice (clear cut) page 232. 
(6) Resin crops, page 232. 

(c) Intermediate fellings, page 233. 

(d) Selection high forest (solely for pro- 

tection), page 233. 

(e) Coppice (selection), page 233. 
(J) Cork bark, page 233. 

(g) Coppice-under-standards, page 234. 
(h) Selection high forest, page 234. 
(i) Even-aged high forest, page 239. 



Pure Area. — The underlying principle is to divide the area to be cut 
over into a number of equal cutting areas corresponding to the number 
of years in the rotation. 

(a) Coppice {clear cut). — If there are wide variations in soil quality, 
which would necessarily mean a variation in yield per acre, then the 
fixed area to be cut over each year can be increased or decreased so as 
to equalize the cut. 

Illustration. — If a coppice forest of 250 acres had a 20-year rotation 
with three-fifths the area producing 10 cords at the end of 20 years and 
two-fifths the area only producing 5 cords, then the area cut over would 
be 10 acres per year for 15 years, and 20 acres per year for 5 years when 
the poorer soil came to be logged. Certain principles govern the designa- 
tion of the cutting areas on the ground. If the forest is small, say 30 
acres, it is better with a 30-year rotation to divide into fifteen or ten 
cutting areas, making a cut of 2 acres every other year, or 3 acres every 
three years. If possible similar types should be grouped into one cutting 
unit unless this interferes with the logging plan. Obviously it is poor 
policy to divide the coppice without seeing to its practicability as a 
logging unit. Broilliard favors rectangular cutting areas, say 1,500 by 
600 feet. It is better to follow contours or logging roads in establishing 
coupe boundaries on hilly ground than to adhere rigidly to rectangles. 
The coppice cutting order should be against the prevailing storm direc- 
tion and it should be numbered in the order of cutting. When coppice 
rotations are lengthened or shortened the redivision of the cutting areas 
is usually an interesting puzzle which can be solved only after careful 
study on the ground. 

(6) Resin crops. — Both the final and intermediate yields are regu- 
lated by working over equal areas each year. No attempt is made 
to get a more exact yield by taking into account the soil productivity. 
For a detailed description of the system of working and an illustration 
of yield regulation see pages 191 and 192, Chapter VIII. The final 
yield of these maritime pine forests is also regulated by cutting equal 



DIAMETER LIMIT BY SINGLE TREES 233 

areas each year. This is simple and works well, because regeneration 
immediately after clear cutting is practically certain. 

(c) Intermediate fellings. — These are regulated ])y cleaning, freeing, 
or thinning an equal area each year. It was found that where the 
volume to be removed by intermediate fellings, especially thinnings, 
was limited the forest suffered silviculturally, consequently no limitation 
of volume is considered advisable. 

(d) Selection high forests, usually maintained in the high mountains 
solely for protection purposes, are, however, cut over periodically on a 
cutting cycle of 12 to 20 years so as to remove the dead and dying trees 
which would otherwise be lost. With a protection working group of 
120 years and a 12-year cutting cycle 10 acres would be cut over each 
year. At high altitudes where logging is difficult and expensive it is 
often considered more practicable to combine several years' operations, 
so under the conditions enumerated it would probably be better to cut 
30 to 50 acres every 3 to 5 years rather than to log 10 acres, for the few 
trees it would yield, each year. There is no limitation of volume since 
the restriction of cut is secured by the silvicultural rule of cutting only 
dead, dying, and deteriorating trees. 

Diameter Limit by Single Trees. — The basis for this method is to cut 
all trees which have attained a certain diameter. This system, now 
largely abandoned, was first used in the Vosges in the middle ages where 
there was an excess of raw material and where only trees of a certain size 
and number were wanted at the local sawmills. 

(e) Coppice (selection). — The selection coppice forests of beech are 
found chiefly in the Pyrenees. When applied to high forest virgin stands 
where age class normality is rarely found, there would be grave danger 
of overcutting, for as Huffel says, "Such a system can evidently only 
be applied to forests very nearly normal." No illustration of the method 
is necessary. 

(/) Cork hark. — The cork-oak bark yield ^- is regulated by computing 
the number of trees which bear bark thick enough to be merchantable. 
In other words, there is the diameter limit idea applied to single trees 
but it is gauged by the thickness of the bark (not by the total diameter 
of the tree), and by the area to be harvested. (See also page 396.) 

Illustration. — The forest of I'Esterel is divided into two divisions 
each with three working groups. It takes 12 years for the cork to reach 
a thickness of 0.9 inch, the merchantable size, and it is collected on 
a cutting cycle of 2 years. The yield is obtained by dividing the number 
of trees (with salable bark on a working group) by 2 and multiplying by 
the average yield per tree. 

32 For further details see Chapter III, French Forests and Forestry, by T. S. Woolsey, 
Jr. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1917. 



234 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

Area and Age. — The regulation of (g) coppice-under-standards is 
based on clear cutting the coppice and felling the ripe or deteriorating 
standards (and thinning the IR standards where necessary) each time 
the coppice is clear cut. Therefore the cutting cycle is equal to the 
coppice rotation. The coppice cut is regulated by felling an equal area 
each year (see (a) page 232); the standards are cut when they reach 
maturity — say four coppice rotations — and sooner if they show signs 
of disease. In addition some of the immature standards are also re- 
moved at the time of the coppice felhng. An approximately equal 
annual cut in standards is obtained, since an approximately equal 
number of fresh standards are reserved when the coppice is cut. The 
natural loss of standards while they are growing to maturity is fairly 
uniform. Great freedom is allowed in leaving thrifty trees for added 
growth and in removing those at a standstill. Occasionally the amount 
of the cut in standards is gauged by applying an empirical growth per 
cent to the growing stock represented by the overwood or standards 
and then cutting just the amount of the growth. Since the standards 
are selected and reserved from the coppice stand the number secured is 
in theory fairly uniform and there is no danger in cutting on a growth 
per cent basis unless the new supply of IR standards falls short (see 
pp. 94-98). 

Method of 1883. — This method originated in France and will therefore 
be discussed in considerable detail, especially as Schaeffer has developed 
several refinements which have never been understood in the United 
States, and since this method could be applied to selection forests of 
spruce and fir in New England and elsewhere. This so-called method ^^ 
of 1883 as applied to (h) selection forests of tolerant species is as follows: 

After the inventory, by diameter classes, determine the rotation and 
the corresponding size of tree, then classify the stock in three classes: 

(1) Old wood, trees more than two-thirds the exploitable diameter; 

(2) average wood, less than two-thirds and more than one-third; (3) 
young wood, less than one-third (usually not calipered). Where there 
is a normal, or nearly normal, proportion of old and average wood the 
cut ^^ equals the volume of the old wood divided by a third of the rotation 

33 Based on the original official instructions issued by the Secretary of Agriculture and 
on the Chamonix Working Plan, by A. S. Schaeffer. 

3^ The student should compare this method with the Hufnagl "dia?neter class method" 
described by Recknagle, pp. 100-105. The Hufnagl method (Variation 1) is: "Annual 

cut = Volume of trees or of diameter classes - years and over, plus increment thereof 

. r 

m - years. . . . " 

Recknagle gives an interesting example of (Variation 2) where the trees have been 
grouped by 3-inch classes with the basis data (for each class) of volume per tree, average 
number of trees per acre, and years required to grow from one class to the next (and 



METHOD OF 1883 235 

plus the growth on the old wood class while it is being cut. But in many 
former working plans the growth of the old wood class was not com- 
puted; the result was therefore a slightly more conservative yield. 

The method was designated for selection high forests of tolerant 
species, where the regeneration could be secured in at least one-third 
the rotation, and where a sustained yield was important. It is based 
on the conception that a selection forest, normally constituted, is just 
like an even-aged forest (where, on equal areas, stands of all ages, up 
to the rotation age, are found), except that the various aged trees are 
intermingled. In the latter case an equal cut is secured by cutting each 
year areas of the same size and productivity. But in the selection 
forest the cutting must remove only ripe trees here and there over the 
entire area without any comparison of surface. Therefore in this case 
volume must be substituted for surface. 

The method is based on the assumption that the volume of the old 
wood is five-eighths and the volume of the average wood three-eighths 
the total merchantable volume, presuming that the young wood is un- 
merchantable. According to the French Secretary of Agriculture the 
data furnished by research on the mean annual rate of growth of high 
forests shows that this relationship is approximately as 5 is to 3. There- 
fore, whenever in a selection forest the volume of the old wood and the 
average wood is as 5 is to 3 it can be taken for granted that these two 
groups are similar to the first two periodic blocks of a high forest. To 
demonstrate that the volume covering the first two periodic blocks of a 
regular high forest (divided into three periodic blocks) is about as 
5 is to 3, which represents their average age respectively, it suffices to 
note that the trees of the second periodic block are the average wood, 
which has arrived at a state where the annual growth is very uniform 
and just about equal to the average of the stand and at a period when 
it is safe to figure the future gro^\i:h as equal to the past average. Sup- 
pose a high forest with a 150-year rotation were divided into three 
periods of 50 years each. The average age of the first (old wood) and 
second (average wood) periodic blocks will be 125 and 75 years and 
will be separated by a length of time equal to a period of 50 years. 
In admitting that the future growth will be equal to the average growth, 
the volume of the 125-year wood will be equal to that of the 75-year 
old wood increased by an amount equal to 50 times the annual growth. 

"average age of the average tree in each diameter class"). For each class the cut 

^r 1 f 1 vx Number of trees per acre ™, ,. . ,, • u r n 

IS = V olume of class X ^ : : — ^-—. — \ The summation of the yield tor all 

Years to grow to next class 

classes is the cut per acre which can then be increased or decreased according to the 

surplus or deficit in the growing stock. According to Recknagle's example the surplus 

is reduced in one cutting cycle (which is made equal to the number of years to grow to 

the highest diameter class for the preceding class). 



236 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

Then if we designate the volume of the 75-year-old wood as 3 the 125- 
year-old volume will be 

3 

3 -|- ;^ X 50 = 3 + 2 or 5. This assumption of an equal mean annual 

growth of course is not exact, but according to French reasoning it is 
sufficiently accurate for an approximate formula which is being continu- 
ally revised at working plan revisions, when the standing timber is re- 
calipered. According to the original circular: 

"One can object to this method of classification (see definition, page 234) because 
the diameters are not exactly proportional to the ages, that they are not equal for the 
same species, or same age, inasmuch as the trees of a selection forest are very far from 
growing under the same conditions. But it is to be supposed that with a large number 
of trees ... a sufficient compensation will take place in order to even off the 
inaccuracies and render them negligible. Moreover, it is not essential, nor possible, 
to arrive at exact mathematical results. . . ." 

The language and the argument of the original French instructions are 
instructive in considering the method and in applying it. As originally 
promulgated, so as to be conservative, no increase was made in the cut 
for the growth which took place on the old wood while it was being 
harvested. But within recent years it is customary to figure growth. 

The method is simple when the proportion of the old wood to the 
young wood is as 5 to 3 or nearly so (see definition of method, page 234) 
but this normal ratio is not usually found. Instead there is (1) an 
excess of old wood, (2) an excess of average wood. In either (1) or 
(2) an approximately normal ratio is secured by transferring diameter 
classes from the old wood to the average wood or vice versa if it is safe 
silviculturally to hold over some of the older trees or if, where the average 
wood is too great, the large average wood sizes can be cut without too 
great a sacrifice. 

An important feature of the application of this method by the best 
French working plan officers is that they compare the actual growing 
stock, on the basis of number of trees per acre of different sizes, with 
an empirical ''normal" stand (an adjusted average for the region). 
This is an essential and important part of the method as best applied 
but is not mentioned in the official instructions. Fig. 19 illustrates 
the method used, where the actual forest is progressing toward an em- 
pirically normal state. At the first stocktaking the stand was open; 
there was an improvement of the stand at the second measurement, 
and the curve of the third stocktaking is approaching the normal by 
a wave movement already referred to on page 215. 

A rough area check can be applied, if desired, by considering that 
the area cut over should be proportional to the volume removed. The 
original instructions stipulated that (1) the length of the feUing period 



METHOD OF 1883 237 

be a submultiple of a third of the rotation; (2) the number of compart- 
ments be about equal to the years in the period; (3) the local forester 
be free to allot the amount of the cut in each compartment according 
to local requirements at the time of cutting; (4) the yield be revised at 
the end of each felling period. 

Disadvantages. — (1) To be exact the number of years in each class 
should be varied in accordance with the number of years of growth 
actually consumed. (2) Unless there is some other check on the nor- 
mality of the old wood and average wood besides the proportion of 5 
to 3 it is insufficient because an acre might contain 5 board feet of old 
wood and 3 board feet of average wood without being normally consti- 
tuted. There must be some conception of total volume. (3) Trees 
must be tallied down to one-third the rotation (exploitable size). 

The advantages are: (1) The yield is in accordance with the condition 
of the stand. (2) The tendency is to work toward normal diameter 
classes. (3) A sustained yield is secured and the growing stock is being 
continually built up. (4) The method has worked fairly well in practice. 

Illustration.^^ — The merchantable size is 24 inches corresponding to 
a rotation of 180 years. The old wood is 17 inches and over, the average 
wood 9 to 16 inches inclusive, and the young wood 1 to 8 inches. 

A sample inventory is shown on the following page. 

(A) According to the inventory the normal proportion exists, the 
average wood totaling 3,000 M and the old wood 5,000 M — therefore 

the cut is ' ' = 83 M per year or if the old wood were growing at the 

, , ^ , 5,000 X 0.02 X 60 „ ,^ .. . , , , 

rate oi 2 per cent per year or 3 M would be added 

making the cut 86 M. 

(B) Suppose the volume of the old wood = 6,200 M and the volume 
of the average wood = 1,800 M. Here the old wood exceeds the normal 
proportion so the old wood diameter classes should be examined to see 
if they can be transferred to the average wood group and held over a 
period equal to 60 years — one-third the rotation. If there is no objec- 
tion to this transfer the trees in the 17 and 18-inch diameter classes, 

35 An exact adaptation of an official French illustration of the method and as illus- 
trated by the Chamonix Working Plan, by A. Schaeffer. American units have been 
substituted. The art of French regulation under such an expert as Schaeffer rests 
chiefly on a thorough, intimate knowledge of the local conditions rather than on the 
organization of methods that differ fundamentally from what has already been accepted. 
Schaeffer knew the selection conifer forests of the Savoie region so well that he could 
probably estimate ocularly the growth per cent on any forest within one-half of 1 per 
cent by simply making a reconnaissance on foot. Such insight into the growth of a 
forest is similar to the knowledge of stands per section obtained in the West by seeing 
what the timber on sections of land (640 acres) looks like, and then learning what they 
cut out under given methods of logging. 



238 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



which we will presume totals 800 M, will be deducted from the old wood. 

5,400 



Thus 6,200 M - 800 M = 5,400 M, ^^r— = 90 M per year, plus 

growth. 

(C) Suppose the volume of the old wood equals 3,300 M and the 

volume of the average wood equals 4,700 M. Here the average wood is 

in excess of the normal ratio, so it is determined where one or more of 

the largest average wood diameter classes can be transferred to the 

old wood for immediate cutting. If it were found that the 16-inch 

diameter class, which we will presume totals 600 M, can be added to the 

old wood, the volume will be 3,300 M plus 600 M which equals 3,900 

3 900 
' - equals 65 M, plus growth. 



M and the cut 



Young wood 


Average wood 


Old wood 


D.B. H., 

inches 


Number 
trees 


Total 

volume, 

board 

feet 


D. B. H., 

inches 


Number 
trees 


Total 

volume, 

board 

feet 


D. B. H., 

inches 


Number 
trees 


Total 

volume, 

board 

feet 


1 
2 
3 


















4 
5 
6 


Not calipered nor 
computed 














7 
8 


















9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


Complet 
calipe 
and 
compi 


ely 
red 

ited 












17 










18 
19 
20 
21 
22 


Completely 
calipered 
and 
computed 


Totals... 


3,000 U 


23 


5,000 M 



After studying the application of this method of 1883 for 25 years, 
Schaeffer^^ decided that the results were very satisfactory; it has 

36 Possibilite des Futaies Jardinees, A. Schaeffcr, pp. 321-326. Revue des E. et F., 
1908. 



AEEA (VOLUME) ALLOTMENT BY PERIODS 239 

enriched poor stands and in some cases has resulted in an excessive 
growing stock. But the excess of the timber capital is in accordance 
with the government policy of conservation. From the viewpoint of 
good silviculture, Schaeffer has formulated a rule for selection fir-spruce 
stands of always cutting at least two-thirds the actual increment each 
year. Otherwise the stand cannot be maintained in good condition 
because if less than two-thirds the increment is removed it means that 
some diseased or decrepit trees must be held over a cutting cycle. Such 
a rule has wide application to similar stands in the United States when 
a wave of forest saving shall finally lead us away from the current forest 
destruction. To practice too intensive economy in a stand means an 
increase in defective timber. 

Area (Volume) Allotment by Periods. — This method, called by French 
writers the ^^ "combined method," is as follows when appHed to an 
(see i page 232) even aged high forest : The method is applied throughout 
France to the rich oak-beech high forests which are so noteworthy in 
the so-called Parisian zone of the Plains (see p. 30) where the regenera- 
tion is by the shelterwood system over a regeneration period of 20 to 
30 years. Formerly great stress was laid on the necessity for an orderly 
sequence of fellings. Lately the tendency is to break away from any 
preconceived order of felling and instead to base the order and sequence 
of fellings on the conditions actually existing in the various compart- 
ments.^^ But protection against dangerous winds and the maintenance 
of protection belts of old timber is always sought after. In the spruce- 
fir forests great difficulty has been experienced in regularizing fellings 
(see p. 75). 

"After having fixed the length of the rotation, it is divided into equal periods, which 
should be long enough to permit the regeneration of a complete forest canton (during 
a period)." 

The period adopted is usually 20 to 30 years and rarely 40 years. 
The next step is to determine what compartments are to be cut during 
each period. 

3^ See Huffel, Vol. Ill, "Methode combinee." To give an accurate picture of how 
the French apply this method, the text has been followed as closely as possible. 

5^ Where the shelterwood system was applied to fir-spruce stands it had been cus- 
tomary to divide the forests into four fixed periodic blocks corresponding to four periods, 
equal to one-fourth the rotation. This led, according to Huffel, to "excessive cutting 
of large timber on half the area (blocks I, IV, and sometimes III), absolutely deplor- 
able felling of average-sized timber on most of the forest (blocks I, IV, and often II), 
and during (the operations) the maintenance of overmature timber in the second 
periodic block no less deplorable. ... In the first period the revenue was too 
much, in the second about correct, in the third a deficiency, and in the fourth very 
deficient. . . . The " precomtages " invented in the last case to correct this de- 
ficiency rendered the yield calculation incoherent and illogical, without remedying the 
evil very much." 



240 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

"Each periodic block must be formed of a single contiguous area, naturally de- 
limited, separated and distinguished in a permanent way from the bordering blocks 
so as to form a topographic mass in the forest. . . . The yield of chief fellings is 
calculated by volume, as in Cottas method. The immediate fellings (thinnings) have 
no fixed yield; it is enough to indicate the annual area they run over during the period. 
. . . The (exact) location of the principal fellings is not determined (in advance); 
they take place according to the needs of regeneration, at any point within the periodic 
block to be realized in turn." 

At the end of each period the yield is recalculated for the periodic 
block which will then be cut over. In theory the areas of periodic 
blocks should be equal, but owing to varying soil quality they may vary 
considerably. 

As already stated the period must be long enough so that regeneration 
can be secured, because "during a period of fixed length an entire periodic 
block of determined area will be cut." It is considered better to pre- 
scribe the cutting of 125 acres in 20 years rather than 250 acres in 40 
years, because in the latter case it leads to irregularity and confusion. 
For example, with a rotation of 144 years, there would be a choice of 
(a) eight periods of 18 years, and with oak and a mild climate (a) would 
be preferred to the (b) or (c) alternatives which follow; (6) six periods 
of 24 years; (c) four periods of 36 years. The compartments are arranged 
in the order in which they require cutting, and they put in the first 
period all compartments most in need of cutting, in the order of 
urgency. 

If there is a lot of old overmature timber declining in vigor the French 
use the " precomptage, where they then subtract their volume from the 
yield of the normal maximum fellings . . . and by the same amount 
decrease the cut of the block when its turn comes to be cut." 

This is too artificial and often results in confusion. It is really borrow- 
ing from the future cuts to make a heavy present cut so as to get rid of 
overmature stands in need of regeneration. 

The main disadvantages of this method if applied too rigidly is that 
it is impossible to fix the order of cutting in advance even for one period, 
because the schemes are soon disarranged by nature, and contiguous 
blocks are impossible. If an ironclad order of cutting is maintained 
heavy sacrifices must be made, because stands are cut before or after 
they should be cut silvically. If there are subtractions and transfers, 
i.e., "precomptage," then the whole scheme of future management 
becomes disarranged (see p. 75). Variations in the commonly accepted 
periodic block method have been suggested by Huffel and others. 
Changeable periodic blocks which are not formed of contiguous compart- 
ments are advocated in preference to the fixed periodic block of the 
older working plans. This means that there is only one periodic block — 
the first — which at the end of each period is always being revised. A 



THE GURNAUD METHOD 241 

similar scheme is where the forest is divided into a number of compart- 
ments equal to the number of years of the rotation. Then the period 
is based on the time it takes to get regeneration with a margin of a few 
years for safety. The compartments, equal in number to the years of 
the period, and most in need of cutting, are grouped into the periodic 
block to be cut during the period, and the yield is the total volume in 
this compartment divided by the years of the period. 

The Gurnaud Method.^^ — The Gurnaud method of yield regulation 
bases the cut upon the actual growth of the different size classes subject 
(a) to the condition of the stand and (6) to the judgment of the forester 
since, according to Jobez, "the interpretation of these figures (the 
growth) is entirely a personal matter and according to each individual 
case." 

The growth is secured by adding the present growing stock to the 
cut for the last cutting cycle; this total is subtracted from the original 
stand to give the apparent growth. To obtain the real growth the 
volume of the trees under the minimum size calipered, which grew into 
the merchantable size classes, is subtracted from the apparent growth. 
This last step is a new idea in American forest technique; it may be 
going to an extreme of refinement, and might be questioned. The 
growth per cent is then figured by dividing the original volume into the 
real growth. The method demands great technical skill and sound 
judgment in its application; any method can be made to serve under 
such circumstances but the Gurnaud formula is especially exacting in 
this respect. The method was designed for selection forests and where 
a forest had the normal growing stock it could be readily applied as 
could any other formula method. 

The advantages of the method are: (1) It necessitates a frequent and 
detailed study of the stand by size classes, and allows the forester to use 
his judgment. (2) The growth is based on the increment of the whole 
stand and allows for the volume of trees which were too small to be 
calipered but which grew into merchantable size classes during the 
cutting period. This avoids the calculations of growth based on the 
increase in size of individual trees. (3) The trained forester realizes 
that growth and yield figures are, at best, an approximation. *° There- 
fore, the best way to avoid errors is to have frequent stocktaking. 

The disadvantages are: (1) It is not a real method of regulating the 
yield because correct results depend on the art of forestry rather than 
on definite clear-cut principles. (2) Instead of dividing the real growth 
by the original volume to get the growth per cent Gurnaud should 
have taken the mean of the first and second inventories. This error, 

39 Based on the discussion by Huffel, Vol. Ill, Economic Forestiere. 

« Accroissement d'un Massif Jardine, S. F. de F. C. et B., No. 5, March, 1908, A. S. 



242 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



which could easily be corrected, tends to make the growth per cent 
appear too high. (3) The method as originally designed requires fre- 
quent and accurate stocktaking and therefore is expensive and tedious. 
(4) The accuracy of the growth calculations depends on accurate 
inventories which might easily be in error by 5 to 10 per cent. There- 
fore if both the (a) first and (6) second inventories were (a) 10 per 
cent too much and (b) 10 per cent too little an error of 20 per cent 
would result in the yield. (5) Too much is left to the opinion and judg- 
ment of the forester. (6) Huff el advances another objection with which 
the writer is not wholly in sympathy, namely, that it is dangerous to 
examine too minutely the growth of trees of different sizes and ages 
because the stand should be regarded as a whole. The tendency to-day 
in the opinion of the writer is to use more judgment in treating selection 
stands and if possible to get rid of tree classes which show they are 
declining in vigor or annual growth. On the other hand the method 
would not work well with abnormal stands. 

Illustration. — Suppose a selection fir forest of 1,000 acres were 
divided into ten equal cutting areas, and that every 10 years, beginning 
in 1910, all trees over 12 inches in diameter were calipered and estimated 
by 2-inch diameter classes. Gurnaud would first calculate the growth 
for each cutting area as follows: 



Area of cutting 100 acres 



Stand in 1920... . 
Cut 1910-1920. . . . 

Total 

Stand in 1910. ... 

Apparent growth 




Feet, board measure 



1,000,000 
50,000 

1,050,000 
980,000 

70,000 



To arrive at the true growth a deduction must ])e made for the 140 
trees which grew into the merchantable size class: 140, 11-inch trees X 100 
board feet, or 14,000 feet board measure; true growth for 10 years, 
56,000 feet board measure; true growth for 1 year, 5,600 board feet. 



5,600 
980,000 



= .57+ per cent or better if the mean of the two inventories 
5,600 



were to be taken 1 ,000,000 + 980,000 = .56+ per cent. The stand 

2 
per acre would be 10,000 feet and the growth per acre per year 56 
board feet. When it comes to an analysis of the stand separately for 
each size class the process is somewhat more complicated; those inter- 
ested in a further study of the method should study La Methode du 



GENERAL 243 

Controle, P. Jacquin, Besangon, 1886, or La Methode du Controle, 
published in 1890 by the Exposition Universelle of 1889.^^ 

WORKING PLANS 

General. — The working plan, or management plan, is merely the 
means of enforcing systematic, obhgatory, mandatory regulation. It is 
" The plan or plans under which a given forest property is to be continu- 
ously managed." In France the government working plans in use to-day 
are the revised plans, good for only 15 to 30 years. In theory the work- 
ing plan revisions have to be made at the end of each period, but in 
Savoie, where the yield will be greatly increased after 20 years, it may 
be necessary to make revisions oftener. They are simple, concise, and 
must be followed by the local officer in charge. There is no differentia- 
tion into planting, protection, grazing, improvement, administration, or 
felhng plans, such as have been attempted in the United States on our 
National Forests. The French working plan is essentially a timber 
felhng plan for one or more small economic units (or working groups) 
of a distinct local forest. 

The ideal working plan should control and order the fellings; but in 
addition there is a certain suppleness necessary owing to unforeseen 
accidents which may occur even in well-managed forests. To be suc- 
cessful, any working plan should be adaptable to local changes, for, 
without suppleness, a working plan is a failure and the tendency of any 
working plans ofRcer without experience is to be too narrow and to in- 
sist on rigid methods applicable to all forests. 

An excellent illustration of the derangement of working plan yields 
by windfall is in the forest of Gerardmer. On September 1, 1903, the 
inspector reported that in the first, third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and 
eighth working groups, which had a prescribed annual j'ield of 11,971 
cubic meters, on account of tremendous udndfalls, 46,378 cubic meters, 
or the yield for almost four years, had already been cut. In the United 
States fire will be the greatest cause of overturning working plans for 
years to come. 

The main difference between the w^orking plans ^ of State and com- 

« Before lea^ang the subject of regulation the writer should acknowledge that some 
of the ideas — and very fundamental and sound ones — have been absorbed from the 
regulation lecture notes of Professor H. H. Chapman of Yale Universitj'. Those who 
had the privilege of hearing Professor Chapman lecture may judge to what extent his 
technique has been followed. 

^ The stocktaking of an average forest now costs aoout 1..5 francs per hectare, but 
on account of the increased cost of labor this will soon increase to 2 francs per hectare. 
No detailed system of cost keeping is kept for different phases of a working plan, but 
the'total cost per hectare, including office work, boundaries, and compartment bounda- 
ries, is about 3 francs per hectare (23 cents per acre). (1912 cost data.) 



244 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

munal forests is that in communal forests the cut has to be divided up 
so that each village will not have too far to go. In other words, this 
is a potent reason for small sales. For example, in the forest of Dingy 
St. Clair, the annual cut has to be divided up so that there will be one 
sale near each village. The forest is on each side of a valley and it 
would be too costly to have one or two central sales, since the transport 
of the wood would have to be across the valley. This is an inconvenience 
to the working plans officer since it complicates the sales problem. 

Before attempting a new working plan it has been the French custom 
to have a frank discussion of the essential problems with the local force 
before the working plans officer makes his final decision. At this con- 
ference it is entirely feasible for the local officers in charge to emphasize 
exceptions from the general rule. Once formulated the plan must be 
accepted by a commune. 

Each ranger in charge of a district is furnished with a digest of the 
working plan.*^ The main points covered in this digest are the order, 
location and area of fellings during the period. The exact data in- 
cluded are rotation, yield and what should be charged against the annual 
felling budget; volume fellings with the canton, compartment, area, total 
volume, and estimated amount to be cut designated for each separate 
felling; area fellings with year, canton, compartment, and area of felling 
classified by compartment. Under remarks is included the method of 
treatment, such as selection fellings, special instructions regarding the 
fellings, cultural rules given separately for volume and area cuttings. 
The data are precisely presented, and cover rather more than a double 
page. 

In past years the inventory frequently included only trees of consider- 
able size. To-day it usually includes trees down as small as 0.20 meter 
(7.9 inches) in diameter by 5-centimeter (2-inch) classes. In other 
words, all trees were measured in the valuation survey down to the 
estimated diameter which would be reached in one-third the years of the 
rotation. The general feeling is that this very complete inventory is 
exceedingly valuable for the sake of future comparisons. 

Schaeffer ^* has originated new methods of working plan description. 
In describing the fertility of the soil he argues that "figures are better 
than epithets." Recognizing the inaccuracy of describing soil quality, 
Schaeffer has established this simple rule: 

*^ The working plans in France are rarely typewritten but are copied by hand. Copy- 
ing costs 75 centimes per double foolscap page and one franc for tables, an ordinary 
map 5 francs per copy. Four copies must be made of each working plan — one copy 
for Paris, one for the conservator, one for the inspector, and one for the local ranger. 

« A. Schaeffer, S. F. de F. C. et B., No. 5. March. 1910, "Coefficients de Fertilite 
des Sols." 



GENERAL 



245 



"To obtain the coefficient of fertility of any stand in a selection (fir) forest, normally 
stocked (that is to say, complete and carrying trees of all ages properly spaced), divide 
the figure 40 by the average number of rings in the last centimeter of growth." 

This rule is explained by the following table: 



Number of rings in the 
last centimeter (average) 


Growth per cent 


Soil fertility (key) 


Equivalent 


2.0 


5.64 


20 


Excellent 


2.1 


5.64 


19 


Excellent 


2.2 


5.64 


18 


Very good 


2.4 


5.64 


17 


Very good 


2.5 


5.64 


16 


Very good 


2.6 


5.64 


15 


Good 


2.8 


5.64 


14 


Good 


3.0 


3.76 


13 


Good 


3.3 


3.76 


12 


Quite good 


\ 3.6 


3.76 


11 


Quite good 


4.0 


2.83 


10 


Quite good 


4.5 


2.83 


9 


Passable 


5.0 


2.26 


8 


Passable 


6.0 


1.88 


7 


Passable 


7.0 


1.61 


6 


Mediocre 


8.0 


1.41 


5 


Mediocre 


10.0 


1.13 


4 


Poor 


13.0 


0.87 


3 


Poor 


20.0 


0.57 


2 


Very poor 


40.0 


0.28 


1 


Very poor 



Another innovation in working plan description is the wide use of 
graphics which allow a comparison between the forest at different 
stages of its development and with average or normal conditions. An 
example of the latest forest description follows (see also p. 532) : 



246 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



oc 


<N 


HI 


o c 


a 








<U 


















ert 






U 


? 




J3 


p 


8 


M 


h 


« 



Q 
O 


ndulat 
slopin 
east 




& 






o 


•q 






a 


a 






S 


■n 


o 
a. 


3 


ja 


^ 


hO 












































































































































































































- 
























/ 


















'ii'i 


^ 


<^ 


> 
















2^ 


U* 




^^ 


"Cu 


v^*^ 














^ 




(^ 


^ 


'si 
















^ 








^ 




















^ 












\ 




















^ 








) 






















































' 


' 




1 


" 











-OSS 

-oos 

-OSS 
-092 
-OfZ 
"088 
-D02 
-081 
-091 
■Of I 

-est 

■Oftt 



THE WORKING PLAN REPORT 247 

The Working Plan Report. — According to the Dictionnaire des Forets, 
by Rousset et Boner, page 68, the working plan report follows the outline 
given below: 

Part I. — General data. — 1, Name. 2, Total area, area wooded, openings and 
clearings. 3, Boundaries. 4, Rights and servitudes. 5, Topography and drainage. 
6, Soil. 7, Chmate. 8, Nature and condition of stand. 9, Kind of treatment. 10, 
Wood products, principal and secondary; their volume and value in money during the 
next ten years. 11, Routes, roads and method of logging. 12, Nurseries. 13, Market. 
14, Grazing, pasturage, agriculture. 

Part II. — Chapter 1. — Digest and critical review of treatment and, if there has 
been any, of the working plan in force. 

Chapter 2. — Basis of the proposed management. 1, Division of the forest into 
sections and justification of this division. 2, Division of each section into working 
groups and justification. 3, Choice and justification of the method of cutting to apply 
to each working group. 4, Table (A) of the working groups by sections. 

Part III. — Special studies of each working group. 1, High forest section. (1) 
Division into compartments with description of compartments in table (B). (2) De- 
termination of the normal age for cutting and consequently normal rotation; divi.sion 
of this rotation into periods; division of the working groups into periodic blocks; general 
system of normal cutting with table (C). (3) Preparatory rotation. (4) Chief transi- 
tion rotation. (5) General scheme of felling with table (E). (7) Yield with table 
(F). (8) Allotting the cut with table (G) . (9) Apphcation of the yield; cultural rules. 

2. Coppice section. (1) Division into compartments with description of compart- 
ments. (2) Determination of the exploitable age for the coppice, decision as to the 
length of rotation; division of this rotation into periods, where (furete) coppice is con- 
cerned. (3) Establishment of the general scheme of cutting; quarter in reserve in the 
public (institution) and communal wood with table (H). (4) Standards. (5) Im- 
provement cuttings; gleanings; freeing of seedlings. 

Part IV. — Works and betterments. (1) Preparation of the general map and the 
compartment map. (2) Subdivisions of management; the boundaries. (3) Survey 
and marking of the boundary. (4) Artificial reforestation and nurseries. (5) Drainage. 
(6) Roads. 

Part V. — Comparative examination of the annual production and accessory prod- 
ucts in material and money, now and after managements 

Maps. — Part of the working plan is a general map on tracing cloth, showing grad- 
ient, water courses, routes, roads, ranger stations, sawmills or nurseries, boundaries of 
working groups, cantons, periodic blocks, compartments, and coupes. If the scale 
of the map wUl not allow all the necessary details, there should also be a map by work- 
ing groups. 

Appendix.'^^ — Should include tables, stand tables, and stem analyses used in fixing 
the yield. The outline for the revision follows: 

Part I. — Preliminary data. — (1) Name. (2) Area. (3) Department and dis- 
trict. (4) Conservation, inspection, canton. (5) Altitudes. (6) Species by per cent. 

Part II. — Management in force. — (1) Digest of the management in force; system 
and method of felling applied to the forest; division in sections and working groups. 
(2) Digest of the general and special scheme of felling. (3) Aim of management and 

^5 The outline for the revision of a working plan should be compared with the above 
and with the outline actually followed in the revised working plan (1910) for the com- 
munal forest of Thiez given in the Appendix, page 517. 



248 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

results obtained by the reproduction cuttings, selection, preparatory in coppice, im- 
provement. 

Part III. — Revisions. — Chapter 1. — General considerations. Modifications to 
make in the general fundamentals of management, to the division in sections and work- 
ing groups, to the rotation, etc. Table (A) of new sections and working groups. 

Chapter 2. — Special studies in each new working group. 

High Forest Section. — (1) Composition of the working group compared with the 
former working plan. (2) Compartments. (3) General scheme of felling, normal and 
provisionary. (4) Special scheme of felhng. (5) Determination of the yield. (6) 
Location of fellings for the period. (7) Allotment of the yield; cultural rules. 

Coppice Section. — (1) Composition of the working groups compared with the former 
working plan. (2) Description of stands. (3) Determination of the exploitable age 
for coppice; fixing the rotation; division of the rotation into periods; selection coppice. 

(4) General scheme of felling; quarter in reserve; yield. (5) Special scheme of felling 
with table (H). (6) Standards. (7) Improvement cuttings; cleanings; freeing of 
seedlings. 

Part IV. — Betterments. — Betterments prescribed by the working plan. Better- 
ments accomplished (remarks on the methods employed, results obtained). Better- 
ments remaining to be done. Estimate of the expense. 

Part V. — Comparative review by working groups of the annual products, principal 
and secondary, in material and money realized before and after the revision. 

Federal Forests (Digest). — Complete data replanting, etc. (1) Species seeded, 
amount per hectare, methods. (2) Species planted, kind and number per hectare, 
methods. (3) Results. (4) Care and expense of upkeep, weeding and replacements. 

(5) Total cost. (6) Necessary data to get better results in future. 

Sample Plots in all Federal forests when natural seeding with thinnings close one- 
half hectare area in young stand, chosen by chief ranger, checked by inspector, marked 
and boundary stones laid, take inventory after each cutting to determine exploitability 
and revenue. 

Communal. — One-fourth in reserve when area more than 10 hectares, "and not 
entirely stocked with conifers on one-fourth area." 

Chamonix Working Plan. — The best picture of a modern French 
working plan revision is obtained by the study of a working plan in 
actual use; the Chamonix working plan ^^ has therefore been studied at 
length. It is for a communal forest where there is need for a sustained 
annual yield, and where, because of its importance as a tourist center, 
the forest cover must be maintained. A selection system is considered 
imperative on account of steep slopes, the danger from windfall and 
avalanches, as well as the necessity of taking every precaution to guard 
against erosion. 

There follows a complete resume of the plan with an explanation of 
the methods employed. It is divided into five parts with an appendix 
following Part V. By way of introduction the author, M. Schaeffer, 
states that the original working plan contains complete statistics, but 
that a number of points require modification and correction. Part I, 

*8 Proces verbal de revision d'Amenagement, par A. Schaeffer, 1910. This plan 
costs about 20 cents per acre excluding office work. 



CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 



249 



'preliminary data, includes a very detailed review of area changes (Art. 2),^^ 
the present area being 4,733 acres; brief allusions to, (Art. 3) boundaries; 
(Art. 4) rights and servitudes; (Art. 5) topography; (Art. 6) soil; (Art. 7) 
climate; (Art. 8) composition and condition of stand; the per cent of 
each species is calculated on the basis of the volume of all trees calipered, 
namely, 5 inches and over; the per cent given in even hundreds was 
found to be: spruce 78 per cent; larch 20 per cent; fir, Scotch pine, and 
cembric pine (with alder, birch, and service tree) 2 per cent; (Art. 11) 
roads, paths, means of logging; besides some 22.5 miles of new trails 
many of the old paths which had faulty alignment had been recon- 
structed; (Art. 14) pasturage, gathering needles. The practice of 
gathering the dry needles, the moss, and even the humus, has led in some 
cases to the impoverishment of the stand and the commune is, therefore, 
urged to put a stop to it at once in view of the aesthetic value of the 
stands bordering this great tourist center. 

Part II. — Management in Force. — The fourteen working groups are 
listed in numerical order and by name with the area of each as for example: 
first working group, " Argentiere-Nord," 508 acres. The working groups 
vary in size considerably, one with 23 acres, six with from 99 to 247 
acres, three with 249 to 494, and four with from 496 to 581; M. Schaeffer 
believes a working group in the mountains should not be more than 
1,000 acres. Then follows the felling scheme for the period dating from 
March 9, 1892. This table is headed as follows: 



Working group 



Order of fellings 



Method of calculating 
the yield 



Remarks 



First working group 
of Argent i6re-Nord. 



First lot: 
A, B, C, etc. 



Transfer of trees 
from 5 inches up 
in the "average 
wood." 



^' Art. I is "name" (see official outline for working plans given on page 247 for the 
list of other project headings not included in the revision) . According to W. B. Greeley: 
". . . it is probable that the greatest pubhc encouragement to the private owner 
to keep his timberland productive has been the stimulus and example of the publicly 
owned forests. These are scattered through practically every section of the country. 
In every forest region, the private owner has seen good forestry practice demonstrated 
for scores of years on State or communal holdings. He knows the forest officers in his 
locality and consults them on the methods applicable to his own woodland. The 
widely distributed public forests have not only set the standards of good management 
but have made the local silviculture a part of farm lore of the region. The rural popu- 
lation of France knows how to grow trees just as it knows how to grow potatoes or 
care for its vineyards. . . . And, by a law passed in 1913, the expert services of 
the State are offered at cost to owners of timberland who wish to cut their holdings on 
a conservative basis corresponding to the requirements of the "regime forestier" and to 
obtain the special forms of protection against trespass now accorded to pubhc holdings 
by the forest code. This law is of too recent origin to have yet demonstrated its value." 



250 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



Under the topic, "Application of the working plan," there are given 
by working groups the data below: 





Compartments 
cut over 


Material 

to be 

cut, 

cu. m. 


Material cut 




No. of 

working 

group 


Subtracted from yield 


Not 
sub- 
tracted, 
cu. m. 


Grand 
total, 
cu. ra. 




Main 

cut, 

cu. m. 


Emer- 
gency, 
cu. m. 


Wind- 
fall 
dead- 
wood, 
cu. m. 


Total, 
cu. m. 


Remarks 


■1 

2 

etc. 

Totals . . 


A, B, C, D, 
E, F, G, H, 

I, K, M, 


1,720 
26,100 


1,509 
20,215 


13 
579 


307 
8,363 


1,829 
29,157 


1,061 


1,829 
30,218 





Results obtained. — While admitting that an exact comparison for the 
whole forest is not possible, yet notwithstanding the overcut M. Schaeffer 
feels that the forest has been enriched by the management during the 
past period. For those areas which can be compared he gives the results 
in tabular form : 





Former 
volume 
by new 
volume 
tables, 
cu. m. 


Present 
volume, 
cu. m. 


Volume 

cut, 
cu. m. 


Growth 




Working group 


Total, 
cu. m. 


Per 

hectare, 
cu. m. 


Remarks 


1 

etc. 
Totals 


21,648 
114,509 


26,547 
230,778 


1,609 
19,230 


6,508 
75,499 


1.84 
2.92 





This comparison, systematized as it is, cannot help but be an accurate 
guide in determining the yield and consequently it is all the more sur- 
prising that the calculation is omitted from so many plans. Changes 
in lines between working groups often make an exact comparison by 
groups impossible, but the figure for the whole forest is well worth the 
cost of the calculation. M. Schaeffer makes it a rule to multiply the 
former growing stock figures by the volumes of the latest volume table 
if the original table is not still in use. 

The systematic comparison of financial results is equally interesting; it 
is by years, and has been given in full so as to illustrate the fluctuations 
which must be looked for owing to windfalls and unforeseen damage to grow- 
ing stock or to unusual communal demands : 



CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 



251 





Jl 
>• — 


oco'^co'^ic-Hcococooioot^t^-Hoooioioco 

iOiOt^iO»OCO<MOOiCcO^C5000COOC>DCO(M-4 
^^'*^'*^'* '^_'^'* ^'^'^ 00i0-*-^^OC5O^O 
•^ ^ of Co" CO lo" CO" ^d" t^" cT t^" of 0~ 0' rt' «o o" "O" mh" 


159,931 

7,992 
5.4 


Tota 


3 . 


<M^^r^cO'*r^iM(N<MCOCOCiOLOt^OC:'*CO 

0^00>-OLOCD-+CO^r^iMCSliCCOt^(M^C^t^ 
'*^'*^C2 '-^t^'^^^^'^l.'-O CO^lOC<I05COCO"*00 

^■^ ^ _r _r rt r-T rt" r-T ^" rt" r-T rt" ,-h' irf rt of -T -^ cvT 


29,727 
1,486 






03 g 


t^CO'*(MiOO(N05-Ht^OCOOOOLOO'^000 
'*(M0C'O'^OOOO05(N^C0tXJ5iM-ft^-1-O 
(M -* TfH CO (M CO C» 0^01 -*05lN(N ^TfrfHOOO 

<M -H co^co'-^'co'oT 


46,443 

2,322 
5.4 


^^ a 

C3 


sa 
1^ 


■*C0i0-tiot^0-lCSlO(NC^OOt^OC0O00i-0'— 1 
rtrt T-i (M (M <N (N "-I ^H lO 05 05 10 


-H CO 

lO CO 
■* 

00" 


>> 

h 
|l 


5^ a 
>^2 


^'^Ti^ •-^»-OOGCOOOQOOiO'*-f<I^OO • 
OCSX'LO -O-HOOCOOClO^t^Cl^X'aOCO • 
'^^CO CO -OCOCOIMCO ^OTt'COOOlOiM ■ 


7,119 

352 
10.7 


3 . 
> 


OOiOiO •OXLOOOOOtNl'-OiMiOaOOCO 
■* >0 ■OOlM'^t^CO 1-H 00 ^ (M (N rt CO CSI ■ 


CO 

CO 



3 

o 

3 
M 

£ 


1 

£ 


1 






<D 

s 

"o 


• 




e 

'a 
a 




s 
> 








a 

_3 
"o 

> 






a 

3 
o 

■3 


3, 

£ 


II 


LOOlOiOOOO-^-f-^^COt^t^-tOlOlOLOi-OCO 
COCOOOCOCO-HO-^OCO-H^LOOt^OGriiOLO 
O^Ci t~~ LO ^_^Ci^O O) X'OlOJi-OOOIMOiOO 

Co' C0'~ ^ of lO '^ Co' ^ 0' '2C Lo" t>r -h" cT cT 0' of •*" rt" -H 


106,369 

5,318 

5.2 




S £ 

3 . 


GO'— i^COt^t^I^LOOOOCCCOl-^OC'OOIiOOO^ 

o^t^aocot^oior^^ajt^ooooi^oioi.oi> 
co__oi^t^ C5 o_^^_^o o_^^_^oi ooco--<^ooco^co^ 


1^ c 

03 

'^ c 

o" — 
o^ 






i 

a 
a 




SI 

3 

> 








L. 




£ 
3 

1 








1 
£ 

3 






p2 




O-H0)C0rt<L0Ot^00OO— lO^CO'^OOt^-OOO 
0i0105ClCiC5OOC;OOOOOOOOOOO 
OOOOCCOOOOOOQOOOOOOOCJCSOCiCiClClOOO 


c 


t c 

< 


Ph 





252 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



ACCESSORY YIELD (non ligneux) in Francs 



Years 


Extension 
of time 
of exploi- 
tation 


Various 

concessions 

sold 

(springs, 

crossing 

privileges, 

stone, sand, 

etc.) 


Minor 

products 

delivered 

in the forest 


Grazing 
in forest 


Hunting 


Trespass 


Totals 




Value of 
day's labor 
of free use 
permittees 


Value 


Price of 
location 


Civil 

damages 




1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
















Totals 

Average 
annually . 


60 
3 


12,771.35 
638.5 


25,716.50 
1,286.00 


7,039.73 
352.00 


150.00 

7.5 


8,760.70 
438.00 


54,498.28 
2,725.00 



It is rather surprising to see the price per cubic meter for the windfall 
(5.4) greater than the price for the regular cut (5.2) ; this is explained by 
the cost of logging scattered timber as contrasted with the clean cutting 
of a considerable windfall even though it were thrown on the market quite 
unexpectedly. 

Part III. — Revision. Chapter 1, General Considerations. — The neces- 
sity for varying the management boundaries is here taken up; these are, 
of course, merely working plan lines. 

Rotation. — In the words of M. Schaeffer, ''The rotations are actually 
fixed at 180 years for the spruce and pines and at 240 years for the 
larch. The notion of a distinct rotation for each species is a theoretical 
consideration which does not possess much weight practically ... as 
a simplification we propose to adopt a single average rotation of 200 
years." This policy seems to be so well adapted to practical conditions 
in the United States that it has been quoted in part verbatim. 

Chapter 11, — Special Study of Each Working Group. — (Art. 1) 



CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 253 

Composition of the working groups as compared with former plan. 
(Art. 2) "Compartments." 

The feature of the working plan is the conciseness with which statistical 
data are presented. Those who are familiar with the detailed compart- 
ment descriptions given in German working plans will be particularly 
interested in the graphic representation of the growing stock. This is 
of great importance because in reality it is the key to the marking. 
The weak link is the determination of the normal growing stock which 
is taken to be the same for all situations and stands, but to be exact 
would be practically impossible without undue expense. 

The stand descriptions are exact and are not by any means perfunc- 
tory: For example, ''Despite the avalanche of February 17, 1904, which 
knocked down 3,116 trees and poles in the middle of the growing com- 
partment, the stand has recovered and is approaching a normal growing 
stock." As one glances through the pages care for exact details is 
evident: "Avalanche area 3.91 hectares; numerous defective stands; 
opening of 3.00 hectares; a number of trees dead topped; reproduction 
sufficiently abundant " ; these are partial examples of the detail. Possibly 
more care could have been taken in describing the reproduction, but I 
rather surmise it is often lacking, so no mention is made. 

(Art. 3) Regulation of felling. Exact order left to local officers. 

(Art. 4) Determination of the yield. The yield is calculated under 
the so-called method of 1883 where in the selection forest the volume 
of the "old wood" is supposed to be five-eighths and the volume of the 
"average wood" three-eighths of the total. If the minimum tree meas- 
ured is 8 inches in diameter then the "average wood" includes trees 8 
to 14 inches inclusive, the "old wood" all above 14 inches, and the 
"young wood" the trees below 8 inches. 

In this case the actual total of the "average wood" amounted to 
165,797.7 cubic meters and the "old wood" 126,979.3, a total of 292,777 
cubic meters. The working plan says : 

292 777 X 5 
"The normal proportion should be: old wood, '—^ = 182,986; average wood, 

o 

292 777 X 3 

'—^ = 109,791. It is far from being attained, but experience has shown that 

o 

it is necessary to convert it artificially. The principal yield would otherwise be lowered 
by the normal volume of 'old wood.' It appears on the other hand from the descrip- 
tive summary that a careful thinning is necessary in a large number of compartments; 
there the average wood forms regular even-aged stands. It is then necessary to add 
to the yield of the principal products an accessory yield comprising the loss which is 
unavoidable because of the volume which does not enter into the calculation of the 
yield, namely 109,791 cubic meters. We put this loss with great conservation at 0.25 

182 986 
per cent per year, and we will then have for the actual yield (P), P = — ^^^ 1- 

T 



254 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



"•^^ X 109,791 = 2,744 + 274 = 3,018 cubic meters, this result corresponding to 1.03 

per cent of the total growing stock and to 1.68 cubic meters per hectare figuring on 
the basis of 1,800 hectares actually wooded. This yield is considered so conservative 
that it is expected the actual growing stock will be increased." 

Reference should be made to the growth figures, pages 256 to 260. 

(Art. 5) Allotting the yield. The annual cut is allotted by convenient 
districts, 10 in number, so that the wood will be convenient to the differ- 
ent hamlets or small sawmills. In other words, it would impose a hard- 
ship on some of the villagers if the cut were made in one locaHty alone. 
This complicates the management, but much the same problem may be 
looked for in the United States on National Forests where a number of 
small local mills must be supplied with stumpage or else they will have 
to shut down and move elsewhere. 

(Art. 6) Marking the cutting areas during the second period (1910- 
1929). The order of cutting is often disarranged by windfalls, etc., but 
it is carefully worked out by the working plans officer by working groups. 
The form used is : 



Canton 


Compartment 


Area 


Volume 
inven- 
toried 


Per cent 
to be 
realized 


Estimated 
yield 


Remarks 


L. E. Grand Chantey. . . 


70 


12.69 


1,549 


25 


388 





In the first working group the per cent to be cut varies from 10 to 25 
per cent of the standing timber. The total amount inventoried was 
43,360 cubic meters, and the cut estimated at 872. 

(Art. 7) Cultural Rules. (A) Fellings by volume. 

"A large number of compartments have not been cut over for quite a long time, 
therefore, the overmature and rotting trees, and those crooked or dry topped, are abun- 
dant. In certain divisions they even form most of the stand. We estimate that their 
removal would almost equal the yield during a period at the very least ... on the 
steep slopes so frequent in the forest, every day there are trees damaged by falling stones 
or by the logging. But it must be observed that while on the one hand one must often 
remove diseased trees, yet on the other there are compartments where poles and young 
high forest need immediate thinnings. It will then be the thinning of these young 
stands which will complete the yield and we believe it necessary to insist on this point. 
One can but admit that to get a considerable volume by marking stands of small size 
on steep slopes is hard work. The officer in charge of marking must guard against the 
tendency of the markers to designate large trees ... he will also have to fight 
against the difficulties of the ground. This rule should be applied specially in the com- 
partments (enumerated) on areas where the regeneration is difficult (compartments 
. . . especially) continue the existing thinnings and in the little openings caused by 
the removal of several overmature trees at once start reforestation by groups. . . . 
In the old compartments (unmanaged) the stand should be kept as fully stocked as 



CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 255 

possible. Be careful to take the necessary steps to get rid of all stems which might 
start an insect attack. There is another group of divisions which require attention; 
there are those which are situated in the valley near the group of hotels and really 
form a park. (Compartments . . .) usually stocked with an old spruce stand on 
the decline and for the most part in a critical condition. The soil packed by the walkers 
free to grazing and litter gathering they are in a terrible condition for reproduction and 
the future of the stands is absolutely compromised. . . One can without great 
inconvenience let the old oaks stand until the last stages of decay, but not so with 
the spruce which when they decline . . . collect insects. . . . These stands 
must be closely watched and not allowed to wait until the last phase of decay. Several 
measures seem necessary; closure to common entry and litter gathering, successive 
fencing areas to start the regeneration." 

In the park behind the Casino the existing reproduction should be 
opened up so as to form Httle patches of advance growth. 

(B) Felling by area. It will consist in topping the broadleaved trees 
to favor the conifers, but birch in good condition should be preserved 
where it is of aesthetic value. 

(Art. 8) Deduction. All trees 8 inches and over are counted against 
the yield. 

Part IV. — Betterments. — The following improvements are taken 
up. Map, compartment numbers; boundary pillars; restocking; re- 
generation has been retarded by grass and weeds so M. Schaeffer recom- 
mends the grubbing out of horizontal seed spots 3 by 3^ feet in size, since 
they have given excellent results. They should be not only in the open- 
ings but also in the sodded ravines. 

"When the slope is steep the sod which is removed should be placed on the lower 
side to form a bench. On the bare soil sow broadcast several larch seed. We have 
not seen any failures, and the experiment thus far may be considered as decisive. It 
should be seen, however, that the seeding is not too thick because usually the natural 
regeneration will complete it . . . and an excess density is to be feared since with 
the larch it is a cause of damping off." 

The little benches have also proved of value in stopping small snow- 
slides. 

Works to prevent avalanches. The plan of campaign recommended 
is: (1) Don't bother with those areas which are almost impossible to 
correct. (2) Where work will avail the Reforestation Branch will 
build dry masonry walls on a small scale, and plant denuded areas to 
larch and cembric pine. (3) The small ravines which are eroding should 
be handled by the local force by building small benches. The finances 
are then discussed and the commune assured of State assistance. 

Part V. — Financial Summanj and Forecast. — From 1890 to 1909 the 
average annual revenue is given as $2,078 and the cost of administration 
$768, leaving $1,310 net. For the next 10 years the gross revenue is 
estimated at $5,196, the expenses at $725, and the net revenue at $4,471 



256 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



or more than triple that of the past period. The rise is due chiefly to 
increases in stumpage. Counting 4,450 acres of forest this is $1 net 
per acre per year for a mountain forest. It will be double or triple this 
figure owing to the increase in stumpage since the war.^^ 

The Appendix. — The Appendix is especially interesting and instruc- 
tive. To start with there is a tabular and graphic comparison of the 
old and new volume tables. These are based on diameter alone and 
the same volume table figures are used for spruce and larch, but a separate 
table for the pine. Next comes a Hst of all trees cahpered by compart- 
ments. The species are listed separately as follows: 

COMPARTMENT 14 





Number of trees 


Volumes, 


D. B. H. 


Spruce 


Larch 


Total 


cubic meters 


20 

25 

etc. 


5,948 
2,986 


121 

88 


6,069 
3,074 


1,213.8 
1,229.6 













On each page in the first column before the d. b. h. figures is given 
the volume in cubic meters (to the nearest tenth only) for each diameter 
classified. Separate records are given for each of the 137 compart- 
ments, for each working group total, and for the entire forest. After 
giving his theoretical normal hectare of selection forest, 400 trees 8 to 
24 inches in diameter, totaling 343 cubic feet, the growing stock (for 
the entire forest) for 1889 is graphically compared with the present stock 
and with the normal stand. These curves show at a glance that the 
forest is still understocked especially in the larger diameters. But it 
also illustrates the progress made during the past ten years in conserv- 
ing a depleted stand. A point in policy which M. Schaeffer has estab- 
lished is that it is not safe to hold over more than one-third the annual 
increment because of the continual need of cleaning out ovei'mature 
material in a selection forest and of making thinnings. The curves are 
reproduced below; in the original working plan, they are supplemented 
by a table giving for the normal hectare the number and volume of 
trees by 2-inch diameter classes 8 inches to 24 inches. 

The Pressler borings are given in full, tabulated by 2-inch diameter 
classes. There are not many, but they are carefully selected under 
average conditions. For 8-inch trees there are 39; for 10, 48; for 12, 46; 
for 20, but 22. The readings are the number of years it takes the tree 
in each class to grow 2 inches. These are then averaged for each diam- 

^^ During the war 700 cubic meters sold for 70,000 francs! 



CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 



257 



eter class and the growth per cent calculated for the corresponding classes 
by the growth per cent formula. The results were then evened off as 



150.,000 - 



for the entire forest 




20 30 

Diameter in inches 



Fig. 20 (a). 




.Aetual results 

-Actual results, evened off by curve 



■J \ 1 1 1 I I I I I I I 

10 20 30 

Diameter in inches 



Fig. 20 (b). 

follows, the irregularity in the larger diameters being due to insufficient 
data: 



258 



GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 



























a|| 

ill 
1 
















1 
1 


/ 




















/ 
















'' 


/ 


/ 














• 


> 




' 














• 




• 














K^ 


'^ 


.,'- 


' 














-^ 


,-'-■ 














- 




^-•'' 







































auinjoA 





OO n 
















"' o o ? 


t^ 


£i 












1 



















3 u 
















M hJ <! 
















& » « 5S 




n1 



03 


.2 










■s s 2 g "S 


a> 


a 


J2 






■3 

m 


u? 


fe :5 _ e 


ID 

> 

d 

'0 
□. 
d 

'3 


J2 

1 


IS 

"o 

-a 

a 
3 


t4 
■3 

"S 

2 

§ 























a 






^ s- 












ca g. 




































o'S 




g. T). ^ 














S« 


-<*< 


° - -o a 












3 




CO 1 kO ® 












M 


O"0 
n. 3 




^ 1 1 i 
















to 




























1-^ 


CO 


00 t~' 










S 




S '^ 










W 






-H 












lEtl 

















i^sag 




- 










w 






■3 
















CQ 












a 














•a 


2 




-a 










3 


a 






1 2 










H 
m 








fe hj 










h3 1 





s 

3 

03 




i>- 


00 


2 

S 

0) 


C^ 03 3 g 


s 


00 


03 

a 

03 

a 
3 

£ 

Q, 

"o 

2 
3 




10 


to 


a 
_o 




T3 

3 


■* 




« 


■a 

(O 

a 
a 
ca 


2 


d 


02 


Old 
com- 
part- 
ments 


(M 


-1 


pi 


- 


10 











r»l 












"S 
d 

1 

1 

m 


■3 

d 


00 


^ 1^ ^^ a5 

o-rt MS 2'0''S'T3 

■30.2oo§ao3 



CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 259 

M. Schaeffer's argument based on these figures is given in full since 
it illustrates the judgment — or, if you like, guesswork — which enters 
into the final yield analysis and answer. 

"The 312 trees (bored) together take 6,742 years to pass from one (2-inch) diameter 

6 742 
class to another or an average of ' = 21.6. If one glances at the preceding table 

(see curve) it is evident that for the diameter classes between 8 and 28 inches the time 
it takes to pass is about constant. . . . One can conclude also that the length of 
the period fixed at 20 years by the working plan of 1890 should be considered as a 
minimum and that the rotation of 200 years adopted in the present study is not too 
high when it takes the average seedling 194 years to pass from a diameter of 6 inches 
to 24 (21.6 X 9 = 194). This conception of the average length of time (to pass from 
one class to another) establishes, in a way, an index of the forest. For the forest of 
Houches, where situated in a valley . . . the average time was 19.4 (Chamonix 
21.6). This difference of two years shows that the forest of Chamonix is less favorably 
situated than its neighbor, and it might be said this inferiority amounts to 10 per cent. 
The rotation of the forest of Houches has been fixed at 180 years; that of Chamonix, 
therefore, ought to be normally 200 (as it is). 

" In evening off this growth per cent graphically (see curve; . . . several inter- 
esting deductions can be made. To start with it is noticeable that in the lower classes 
where the measurements were numerous, the evened off curve follows the actual curve. 
It might be stated also that beginning with 24-inch diameters the growth per cent 
falls normally below 1 per cent. This merits the conclusion that the reservation of 
trees of higher diameters should be the exception. If the evened off growth per cent 
is multiplied by the total volume (on the entire forest) as given in the recent stock- 
taking, the probable production of the forest as it stands is obtained: 2.54 X 30,437 

-h 2. X 43,951, etc. (for each class), with the following total = ^'^^ = 4.511 cubic 

4 511 
meters. The average per cent would then be '' = 1.54 per cent. If it is possible 

to conclude that 1.54 is the maximum growth per cent imder actual conditions, and 

given the yield reduced to 1.03 per cent then 0.51 per cent (of the growth) or about 

one-third will be saved each year. 

"There are other methods of valuing the probable production of the Chamonix 

forest. Taking for granted that the figure of 1,800 hectares represents the area actually 

292 777 
forested, it might be argued that the average stand is ' = 160 cubic meters 

roughly. By referring to the table (of average production for Savoie) ... it 
appears that when it takes 22 years (to pass from one diameter class to another) and 
the stand per hectare is 160 cubic meters then the growth is 2.5 cubic meters per hec- 
tare; the total growth then is 1,800 X 2.5 = 4,500 cu. m., a figure which exactly agrees 
with that obtained (by multiplying the volume by the growth per cent). It is, more- 
over, confirmed by the comparison of the compartments calipered twice; those 20 
years ago had a volume of 218,980 cubic meters (calculated by the present volume 
table) and to-day 278,360. Since about 26,000 cubic meters (by same volume table) 
was cut, the production has been 278,360 + 26,000 - 218,980 = 85,380 or 4,269 per 
year, a figure which is also in accord with the preceding when it is considered it appUes 

to only about 1,700 hectares (i.e., =-= =4,519). 

"Finally if we use the formula of the whole yield, that is to say, if we take count of 
the growth of 'old wood' and a third of that of the 'average wood' (remembering that 



260 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS 

in view of the transfer the rate of growth of the 'old wood' is about 1 per cent, and 
that of the 'average wood' 2.1 per cent) we will have 

P (yield) -^ — + 10^ X 109,791 = 4,428, 

a figure which is also near the others (already given above). This similarity, it is 
interesting to note, allows one to conclude that the production of the forest of 
Chamonix is in the neighborhood of 4,500 cubic meters and that in fixing the yield at 
3,018 cubic meters there will be an annual saving of about 1,500 meters. This economy, 
which is really an enrichment of the stand, is fully justified and is in perfect accord 
with the wishes of the officials." 

The American professor of management could easily pick flaws in 
this working plan. To start with, he might argue that the same normal 
stand should not hold for all soils, species, mixtures, and altitudes; 
that Pressler's method is not exact; that the decrease in the number 
of trees is not fully known, and so on. But what impresses me most is 
the simplicity of the plan, its evident practicability, its freedom from 
ponderous descriptions which are replaced by tables and curves showing 
at a glance what the administrator must know. No two plans are 
exactly alike. Where there is a ''Chief of Management" stationed in a 
district, they have no cut-and-dried air. Some of the methods are far 
too intensive for the United States, but it is believed the review contains 
suggestions which may be of value to the profession. There is practi- 
cally no difference in the important details between an original plan and 
a careful revision. As a matter of fact, the methods could be followed 
very closely in a forest where intensive management had to be applied 
such as on a small estate. It is no wonder that M. Schaeffer is recog- 
nized as the foremost working plan expert in France. 



CHAPTER X 
FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION ' 

Bmef Summary op Legislation (p. 261). General, Corsica, Maures and I'Esterel, 
Frontier Forests, Fishing and Shooting, Dunes and Landes, Mountain Landes, Clearing 
of Private Timber, References to Legislation. 

Administrative Organization and Education (p. 268). Early Organization, Re- 
organization of 1882, Salaries, Modern Organization, Military Rank, Education. 

Protection (p. 275). Introduction, Damage from Logging, Servitudes and Use 
of Minor Products, Excessive Pruning, Damage by Birds, Insect Damage, Damage by 
Game, Damage from Grazing, Fungous Damage, Windfall Damage, Damage by Frost, 
Damage by Simscald and Drought, Snow Damage, Intensive Fire Damage, The Fire 
Problem in the Forest of I'Esterel (Var), Fire Insurance in France. 

Betterments (p. 290). Forest Houses, Roads and Trails, Boundaries, Maps. 

Sale op Timber (p. 293). General Sales Procedure, Estimate and Appraisal, Cutting 
and Logging Rules, Example of a Long-term Sale, Stumpage Prices. 

BRIEF SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION 

General. — It is rather surprising to find a forest code and ordinance 
still in force, except for minor modifications, that was passed in 1827. 
Since that time there have been numerous special laws for Corsica ^ 
on account of the less intensive conditions and long-term logging con- 
tracts; for the Maures and I'Esterel, between Toulon and Cannes, on 
account of the dangerous fires; for frontier forests; for Algeria,^ Indo- 
China, Tunisia,^ and other colonies. There are also special laws for 
fishing and shooting, dunes and Landes, eroded slopes in the mountains, 
military organization of the Forest Service, pensions, taxes, public works, 
water (including log driving), and rural police. 

There are many who believe that the Forest Code of 1827 is out of 
date and therefore should be replaced by a new law more suited to 
changed conditions. On the other hand it is strict, it is well under- 
stood, and a change would be strongly opposed by many foresters be- 
cause of the disastrous effects of too lenient forest laws and the impossi- 
bility of passing a law as drawn up by the Forest Service owing to the 
probability of amendments by the legislative assembly. Those who 
wish to obtain an idea of the essential details covered by the code are 
referred to the translation of the Algerian Code of 1908 which follows 

1 Major R. Y. Stuart kindly reviewed this chapter. 

2 See Appendix of French Forests and Forestry (Tunisia, Algeria, and Corsica). 
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 

261 



262 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

closely, in part word for word, the French Code of 1827. The main 
difference is that the Algerian Code is more supple and less repressive. 

Corsica. — Since 1840 the Waters and Forest Service was given the 
right to make sales for periods up to 20 years after suitable public auction. 
This law provided that the transport improvements should revert to the 
State when the sale expired; that the State should have an option to 
purchase sawmills within 1.2 miles of the forest. The object of this law 
was to develop forests hitherto inaccessible under ordinary sales. The 
law of 1854 aboHshed grazing servitudes in Corsica but as a matter of 
fact even to-day grazing is practically unrestricted. 

Maures and I'Est^rel. — Owing to the excessive fire damage a special 
fire-protective scheme was legislated in 1870 and revised in 1893. The 
provisions of this law are discussed in this chapter under "Protection." 

Frontier Forests.^ — Trespass committed on a bordering State can 
be judged in France under French law if the State in question has passed 
a reciprocity law to the same effect. 

Fishing and Shooting. — Important and detailed laws have been 
enacted to govern the administration of fishing and shooting. It is inter- 
esting to note that the law of 1908 contains a list of the useful and 
harmful birds. 

Dunes and Landes. — The decree of April 29, 1862, placed the fixation, 
maintenance, conservation, and exploitation of the dunes under the 
Ministry of Finance (Director of Forests), but the Ministers of State, 
Finances, Agriculture, Commerce, and Pul^lic Works were all charged 
with the execution of the decree. The decree of December 14, 1810, 
provided for the fixation and forestation of the dunes. In the first place 
a map was required showing State, communal and private lands with a 
plan as to the best methods to follow. Where owners were unable to 
carry out the measures prescribed it was arranged that the work should 
be undertaken by the State and managed until the cost of the work was 
completely paid for with interest (since April 7, 1900, calculated at 4 
per cent). The measures included: Forbidding the removal of weeds 
or plants from dune areas without special authorization, patrol and 
police force, and the State was given the right to remove brush from 
private land. The ordinance of February 5, 1817, provided that the 
work should be directed by the "Fonts et Chaussees" under the Minis- 
try of the Interior, with the provision that when the trees reached a 
certain age, to be determined later, they would be under the Waters 
and Forests Service. The ordinance of January 31, 1839, sanctioned 
the auction of resine on 18,632 acres of wooded dunes; both thinnings 
and final cuttings were mentioned and natural regeneration was to be 

3 The basis for these data and what follows is : Code de la Legislation Forestiere, A. 
Puton et Ch. Guyot, Paris. 



CLEARING OF PRIVATE TIMBER 263 

provided for. The ordinances of July 15, 1810, and May 2, 1810, pro- 
vided protective measures for the dunes in the Department of the 
Pas-de-Calais, no ditches or removal of sand within 200 fathoms of 
high water, no removal of grass or weeds, no grazing without special 
authorization. 

The law of June 10, 1857, provided for the drainage and sowing of 
communal lands at the expense of the communes, or if they were unable 
at the expense of the State, with reimbursement from the proceeds 
with principal and interest. 

Mountain Lands. — The law of July 28, 1860, which provided for the 
restoration of the eroded mountains, was superseded by the law of April 
4, 1882. Before a reforestation area boundary is decided upon there is 
an open hearing in each of the communes interested, a meeting of the 
municipal councils, a recommendation of the Arrondissement Council, 
General Council, and Special Commission. The period of inquiry is 
30 days and if a decision is made to set aside the area for reforestation 
then a law is passed setting aside the land required as shown by the 
approved reports, maps, and plans of forest officers. The work is carried 
out by the Waters and Forest Service at the expense of the State. The 
ownership of this land is governed as follows: 

Where institution, communal, or private land is being damaged by 
grazing it can be reserved from use after inquiry and consideration 
similar to that required before reforestation, but if, after 10 years, it is 
still necessary to reserve it, public expropriation is necessary. The 
annual loss during the first 10 years of reservation is paid for from the 
municipal treasury. Work can be undertaken at the expense of the 
State to hasten restoration, and trespass will be prosecuted as if on a 
forest. 

Clearing of Private Timber. — The restrictions against clearing private 
forest land, even if for purposes of cultivation, are so stringent that the 
analysis of the law by Guyot is given in full. It is generally referred to 
as the law of June 18, 1859, put into effect December 19, of the same 
year.^ 

Art 219 (Law of June 18, 1859). — No private owner has a right to grub up or to 
clear his timber without notifying the sous-prefecture at least 4 months in advance, 
during which time the administration may inform the owner of its opposition to the 
clearing. The declaration of the owner states choice of residence in the canton in 
which the timber is located. 

Before signifying opposition, and at least 8 days after advice is given to the party 
concerned, the inspecteur or the "sous-inspecteur," or one of the "gardes generaux" 
of the circonscription, proceeds with the examination of the condition and location 
of the timber and makes out a detailed "proces-verbal" of which the party is given 
notice with the request that any objections be submitted. 

4 Translated by R. C. Hall. 



264 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

The prefet, "en conseil de prefecture," gives his opinion on this opposition. 

The forest agent of the department is notified of this opinion as well as the owner, 
and it is transmitted to the Minister of Finances who makes an administrative decision, 
after having consulted the financial section of the "conseil d'etat." 

If, within six months following the notification of opposition, the decision of the 
minister is not given and transmitted to the owner of the timber, the clearing may take 
place. 

Original Art. 219. — For '20 years from the date of pronmlgation of the present 
law, private owners have no right to grub up or to clear their timber, unless tliey notify 
the sous-prefet at least 6 months in advance, tluring which time the administration 
may inform the owner of its opposition to the clearing. Within the 6 months from 
this notification, the prefet has to decide the case subject to approval of the Minister 
of Finances. If within the 6 months following the notification of the opposition, the 
decision of the minister has not been given and transmitted the owner, then the clearing 
of timber may take place. 

Ordonnance of August 1, 1S27, for the execution of the "Code Forestier." 

REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER 

Art. 192. (Decree Nov. 22, 1S59.) — The declarations prescribed in Art. 219 of 
the "Code Forestier" must indicate the name, the location, and the area of the timber 
which private owners desire to clear; furthermore they must mention the choice of a 
residence in the canton in which the timber is located; these declarations will be made 
in duplicate and deposited at the prefecture where they will be put on record. They 
will be signed by the sous-prefet who will give back one of the copies to the owner mak- 
ing out the declaration, and will immediately transmit the other to the "agent forestier 
superieur de I'arrondissement." 

Art. 193.' (Decree of Nov. 22, 1S59.) — - Before proceeding with the investigation 
of the conditions and location of timber, and at least 8 months in advance, one of the 
agents designated by Article 219 of the "Code Forestier" will have to send the 
party concerned, at the residence selected by this party, a notice stating the daj- on 
which the said investigation will take place and inviting the party to assist or to be 
represented. 

Art. 194- (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The proces-verbal established by the for- 
estry agent will mention all data and information which may be of such a nature as to 
cause objection to the clearing on account of one of the reasons enumerated in Article 
220 of the "Code Forestier"; furthermore, if the timber in question is located in part 
of the frontier zone, where the clearing cannot take place without authorization, this 
fact will simply be mentioned in the proces-verbal. 

Art. 195. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The proces-verbal will be transmitted with 
all papers to the conservateur who, before reporting his opposition, will have a copy of 
it sent to the party concerned, inviting him to present his objections. 

Axt. 196. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — If the conservateur thinks that the timber 
must not be cleared, he will transmit his opposition to the owner and he will immediately 
refer the case to the pr6fet, transmitting him all his papers with his objections. In a 
contrary case, the conservateur will refer without delay to the directeur g6n6ral des 
forets, who will report on the matter to the Minister of Finances. 

Art. 197. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — Within a month's time, the prefet, at the 
prefecture meeting, will give his opinion regarding the opposition with full details. 

Within 8 days following this opinion, the prefet will have it transmitted to the 
owner of the timber and to the conservateur and, if there is no conservateur in the 



REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF 'JIxMBKR 265 

department, to tfu; "agent forestier Hup6rieur" who will decide the ease after having 
consulted thr; financial .section of the "conseil d'6tat." 'i"he ministerial decision will 
b(; transmitted to the owner within montlis from the date of notification of the oppf>- 
sition. 

Art. 220. (Law of June 18, lHo9j — Opposition to the clearing can only be formu- 
lated for the timber preservation of which is recognized as being necessary: 

{\) For the maintenance of m\\ on mountains or slopes. 

{2) As a protection against soil erosion and silting up of creeks, rivers and t/jrrents. 

(3j For the existence of springs and watf^r coursf:«. 

(4j For the protection of dunes and coasts against erosion by the sea and invasion of 
sand. 

{o) As a protection of territory in ttiat part of the frontier zone which shall be deter- 
mined by regulation of public administration. 

(6j For public health. 

The previous Article 220 is now the new Article 221. 

Arl. 221. (Law of .June 18, 1859.; — In case of violation of Art. 219 the owner is 
fined the sum of $90. oO minimum and $289.-50 maximum per hectare (2\ acres; of 
cleared tim?>er. Furthermore, he is compelled, if so ordered by the Minister of P'inances, 
to replant lAncjtH cleared with timber trees within a period which cannot exceed three 
years. "Code Forfistier," 91, 159, 100, 105, 198, 199, 219, 223. 

Original Arl. 221. — In case of failure of the owner to do the planting or the sowing 
within the time prf^cribed by the judgment, the work will be done at hLs expense by 
the forestry administration upon authorization p^revioaslj' given by the prefet who will 
settle the voucher covering this work and will liave it executed against the owner. 

Ordonnance of Augml 1, 1827. Art. 198. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — When 
mayors and adjoints shall have made out proc^verbaux stating that clearing work 
has been effectuated in violation of Title 15 of the Forestry Code, they will be obliged, 
independ<;ntly of the delivery they must make of them to our "procureurs," to send a 
certified copy to the local forestry agent. 

A rl. Ifj9. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.; — The conservateur will report to the directeur 
g6n6ral des for^ts on the condemnations pronounced in the case provided for in Par. 1 
of Article 221 of the Forestry Code, and will give his advice on the necessity of replant- 
ing the filaces with timber iTdfta. The ministerial decision which will order replant- 
ing will be transmitted to the party concemfid through administrative channels. 

Arl. 222. (Law of .June 18, 1859.) — In case of failure of the owner to do the planting 
or sowing within the time prescribed by the ministerial decision, the work will be done 
at his expense by the forestry administration upon authorization previously given by 
the pr6fet who will settle the voucher covering this work and will have it executed against 
the owner. "Code P>jre.stier," 15, 41, 140, 221. 

New Article 222 (Forestry Codej is only a reproduction of Article 221 of the same 
code, except for the substitution of the words "ministerial decision" for the word 
"judgment," as a coasequence of the change brought by the law of June 18, 1859, to 
the wording of former Article 220. 

Arl. 223. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — The disposition contained in the preceding four 
articles may be applied to the sowing and planting made for replacement of cleared 
timber pursuant to the ministerial decision. "Code Forestier," 219 s., 224. 

Article 223 (Forestry Codej modified by the Law of June 18, 1859, reads like the 
old Article 222 of the same code, in which the word "judgment" has been replaced by 
the expression "ministerial decision" in order that this disposition may agree with the 
new wording of Article 221. 



266 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

Art. 224- (Law of June 18, 1859.) — There are excepted from the regulations of 
Art. 219: 

(1) Young timber during the 20 years following its sowing or planting, except in 

case provided for in the preceding article. 

(2) Parks or fenced gardens, or gardens adjoining houses. 

(3) Open timber of less than 10 hectares area (24.7 acres) when not part of another 

forest, the whole of which aggregates an area of 10 hectares, or when not lo- 
cated on the top or on the slopes of a mountain. Forestry Code 219, 223. 

New Article 224 (Forestry Code) corresponds to the old Article 223. It only modi- 
fies it by: (1) Substituting the figure of 10 hectares for 4 hectares for the area of timber 
which may be cleared without fulfilling formalities determined by Article 219 (Forestry 
Code). (2) Substituting the expression "fenced gardens or gardens adjoining houses" 
for the words "fenced gardens and gardens adjoining houses," concerning trees forming 
part of parks or gardens exempted by the application of Article 219. 

Art. 225. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — Court actions concerning clearings made in 
violation with Article 219 are outlawed after lapse of two years from the date when the 
clearing took place. — Forestry Code 185, 187, 221. 

New Article 225 is the reproduction of previous Article 224. 

Art. 226. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — The sowings and plantings of timber on the 
top or on the slopes of mountains, on dunes, or in the waste lands will be exempted 
from taxes for 30 years. — Forestry Code 194, 195, 219 s. 

New Article 226 reproduces the terms of Article 225, except two changes. 

Law of March 29, 1897. — Fixing the general budget of expenses and receipts of 
exercise, 1897 (Renueil Periodique Dallez, 97.4.33). 

Art. S. Article 116 of the Law of the 3 Frimaire, an VII, regarding the repartition 
and the situation of the land-tax is modified as follows: "The revenue taxable on any 
cleared soil which shall be afterwards planted or sown with timber will be reduced by 
three-fourths during the first 30 years after planting or sowing, whatever may have 
been the state of cultivation of the soil prior to the clearing. 

1. The ministerial decision which refuses an owner of timber the authorization of 
clearing is not limited in its duration; it is final and lasts with all its effects so long as 
unmodified or not recalled by the minister who rendered it. — Cr. c, March 15, 1884. 
D. P., 84.5.281. 

2. The prohibition of clearing pronounced under these conditions has the character 
of a true legal servitude burdening directly the timber itself, and as long as this inter- 
dict has not been recalled, it keeps all its force in regard to the owner who has made 
the declaration requesting clearing as well as toward his assigns "a titre gratuit" or 
"a titre on6reux." Then, if the said owner or his assigns thinks proper to provoke a 
new investigation in order to be authorized to clear all or part of the timber on which 
the ministerial decision has been made, he should not proceed in accordance with the 
terms prescribed in Art. 219 (Forestry Code), but should address directly the minister 
who has made the decision in order to obtain from him the modification or cancellation 
of his decision. — Same decree. 

3. Par. 2 of Article 214 (Forestry Code) which excepts from the prohibition of 
clearing "the parks or fenced gardens adjoining houses," must be understood in this 
sense, that the exception exists only in favor of parks or gardens which are actually 
both fenced and adjoining habitations. Riom, June 11, 1883, D. P., 84.5.283. 

4. Especially one cannot consider as a park in the meaning of Article 224 (Forestry 
Code) a body of timber around a chateau but not fenced; it makes little difference if 
this timber combines certain conditions of management for the satisfaction and interest 
of the owner. — Same decree. 



REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER 267 

5. And the appellate judge cannot admit the proof of the enclosure of the timber 
when the lack of enclosure has not been established by a court which has had authority 
to deal with the subject. — Same decree. 

6. The Par. 3 of Art. 224 (Forestry Code) freeing from the interdiction of clearing, 
timber not fenced, of less than 10 hectares (24.7 acres) area, provided it is not part of 
another forest which would make up an area of 10 hectares, does not establish any dis- 
tinction between timber belonging to the same owners or to different owners. Riom, 
June 11, 1883, D. P., 84.5.282. 

7. The accused party has to prove that the timber cleared was of an area less than 
10 hectares, and that it was not part of a body of timber of more than 10 hectares area. 
— Same decree. 

8. And this proof cannot be accepted when the contrary is formally stated by a 
"proces- verbal" which must be trusted until shown false. — Same decree. 

9. The exemption from all taxes during 30 years, established by Art. 226 (Forestry 
Code) in favor of sowings and plantings of timber on the tops or slopes of mountains 
is only applicable to the "land-tax" and not to the registration taxes, especially to 
taxes for transfers due to death. — Req. July 7, 1885. D. P., 85.1.453.^ 

Certain features of land control (or acquisition) for combating drift- 
ing sand or erosion deserve emphasis if only to illustrate how demo- 
cratic the governmental methods are in France when the interests of 
the local inhabitants are concerned: 

(1) Where private owners are unwilling to repair damage injurious 
to the public interests the use of the land can be taken over by the 
State, the work done and the land only returned to the original owners 
when they pay the bill with legal interest, or when the costs are earned 
by the land itself; or in the mountains the land may be condemned, 
the necessary work done by the State when the owner could secure his 

* Speaking of French forest taxation, W. B. Greeley concludes: 
". . . When land is planted which has lain fallow for a considerable time, the 
law provides that there shall be no increase in the assessed value, or rated income, 
of the ground for a like period. Aside from these exemptions, private forests in France 
are taxed on their current income, a method wliich dates back to the Revolutionary 
period. Under the law of 1907 a valuation conunission periodically classifies the lands 
in all forms of culture, commune by commune, in accordance with their relative pro- 
ductivity. There may thus be three or four types of forest, as determined by their soil 
and timber species and the value of their products. A net yearly income is then ob- 
tained for average areas within each type. All forest properties shown on the official 
survey and plats of the commune are thus classified and a net income based upon the 
sample tracts studied is assigned to each. The periodic revenues customary in French 
forests, where nearly all properties harvest some products every few years, are, under 
this sj'stem, reduced to an annual basis which represents the net returns for stumpage 
after deducting costs of upkeep, fire protection, forest guards, thinnings, planting 
blanks, and other cultm-al measures. The tax is levied upon this net income and 
usually amounts to 8 or 10 per cent, about half of which goes to the central government. 
The rest comprises the departmental and communal taxes and levies for local roads. 
It is of interest to note that French forest owners are demanding a straight-out yield 
tax levied upon forest products when actually cut, the same principle which is generally 
regarded as the basis for forest tax reforms in the United States. . . ." 



268 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

land by repaying the State with interest; as an alternative the private 
owner could secure half his land by trading the other half to the State 
to cancel the costs of reparation. Similar methods were applied to 
communal lands which were really private lands owned in fee simple 
but with the various interests undivided. 

(2) Before mountain land can be reserved from use the scheme advo- 
cated by Government technical representatives had to be passed upon 
by the village, by the commune, by the arrondissement, by the depart- 
ment, by a technical and political commission, and by the Secretary of 
Agriculture who also had to have a decree by the House of Deputies 
before the actual work could be begun. 

These details are recited to illustrate the difficulty of securing legisla- 
tion in France, even if it aims at benefiting the public, if private inter- 
ests are on the defensive. Even during the Great War the requisition 
of private timber finally had to be passed upon by a local and a central 
commission before the requisition could be placed. And in France 
the adverse interests are always represented on the commissions. More- 
over these interests have representatives in the House of Deputies who 
can embarrass the ruling party if injustice is done. 

References to Legislation. — Special features of French forest legisla- 
tion are treated in the various studies of this volume; the references are 
given in the Index under "Legislation." 

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND EDUCATION 

Early Organization. — The quality and efficiency of the French 
Waters and Forests Service has varied with the history of France. It 
is not surprising that, in the early days, there was a great deal of graft 
and incompetency. It was the order of the day. At a period when 
even the bishops and clergy lent themselves to corrupt methods of ad- 
ministration it was no wonder that the Forest Service suffered likewise. 
Beginning in 1554 positions in the Forest Service were sold by the King 
and from the 17th century employment in the royal forests was heredi- 
tary. The first mention of regular "conservations" was in 1791, when 
France was divided ^ into 28 conservatorships with inspectors, assistant 
inspectors, guards, surveyors, and rangers as assistants. In 1817 the 
Forest Service was suppressed, but in 1820 it was reestablished. Real 
forestry might be said to have started in France December 1, 1824, with 
the founding of the Nancy Forest School, the first director being Bernard 
Lorentz, who had studied under Hartig in Germany. Such foresters as 
Parade, Nanquette, Bagneris, and Broilliard were the result of teaching 
by Lorentz. 

» See Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 308, 325. 



REORGANIZATION 269 

Reorganization of 1882. — On August 1, 1882/ the forest department 
was reorganized. On that date the departmental establishment was 
simplified and was reorganized to include general inspectors, conservators, 

^ "You will find below the text of a Government order, dated August 1, 1882, which 
confirms the new organization of the Forest Department of which the foundations had 
been laid by the Minister of Agriculture on the 28th of April preceding. The publica- 
tions of M. Tassy, late Conservator of Forests, have made known to you the spirit 
and object of this much needed reform. 

"It was in fact necessary to put an end to the confusion of functions everj'where 
existing in our department; it was necessary to suppress divers grades corresponding to 
identical duties as superfluous; and lastly, it was necessary to stop the frequent trans- 
fers of forest officers, and to accelerate their chances of promotion to responsible posts. 

"Such are the results that we may be permitted to expect from these reforms. The 
departmental establishment is simplified. It is composed of general inspectors, of 
conservators, of inspectors, of general guards. It would seem useful to define sum- 
marily the attributes attaching to these several grades. 

"General Inspectors. — They represent the superior administration in their tours 
of inspection in the provinces. 

"Visiting the different forest regions every year, in frequent contact with the officers 
of all grades, and thus becoming acquainted with their capabilities, it is the mission of 
the general inspectors to secure unity of action in conformity with plans previously 
agreed upon. 

"In the intervals between their tours, as members of the administrative council 
under the presidency of the director general, they are enabled, from a complete local 
knowledge, to offer their opinions on the proposals made by forest officers. 

"Conservators. — The conservator's r61e is to transmit orders and to explain their 
spirit and object to the officers placed under his orders. His attributes are not altered, 
but the control of operations and works, which he used to exercise in concurrence with 
inspectors, now falls on him alone and will necessitate a greater activity on his part. 

"The efficacy of this control will besides be facilitated by the early formation of 
new forest circles. 

"Inspectors. — The inspector of forests has now become the chief executive officer 
of the department, and has the initiative and responsibility in all principal forest opera- 
tions. He prepares and executes plans and estimates of works. He directs fellings, 
whether principal or secondary, and remains responsible for those, the execution of 
which is intrusted in certain cases to his subordinates. He issues all executive orders 
and conducts all the correspondence. Under the new system he combines the former 
duties of an inspector with most of those which hitherto devolved on range officers 
(chefs de cantonment), that is, sub-inspector, general guard, or general guard 'adjoint.' 

"The execution of all these duties has been rendered possible by the Government 
order of August 1, last, which increases the number of inspectors from 160 to 240, and 
at the same time reduces the areas of their charges to about 30,000 acres. 

"The inspector will be assisted in his office work by a clerk, and in his other duties 
by a number of subordinates from the secondary forest schools. The latter will serve 
under his orders in charge of ranges with the title of general guard, and will be responsible 
to him. 

"General Guards. — The general guard is an officer whose duties are essentially active, 
who should be as often as possible lodged in a house belonging to the department, and 
should keep neither an office nor records. ... In the same spirit it is intended 
that in order to reward capable and zealous foresters, promotion to certain posts of 



270 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 



inspectors, and forest assistants.^ The general inspectors represented 
the administration at Paris and inspected the work throughout France. 
In the office they passed upon proposals submitted by forest officers. 
The conservator transmitted orders sent him from Paris and explained 
their spirit and object to the officers under his charge. The inspectors 
were made the chief executive officers and had the initiative and re- 
sponsibility for all important forest operations, such as executing plans 
and making estimates, supervision of fellings, correspondence, and such 
work as is now performed by forest supervisors in the United States. 
Under the inspectors the forest assistants performed field work, but were 
not responsible for administration. They assisted and supervised 
rangers and guards. The organization of 1882 did not last long, for 
in 1883 they returned to the system of "cantonments" managed by 
forest assistants and assistant inspectors. The general inspectors' 
positions which had been done away with in 1887 and replaced by 
administrators under the director at Paris were reestablished at the 
end of 1911, but the number was reduced to two. A resume of the suc- 
cessive organizations is shown in the table which follows: 

TABLE 23.— NUMBER OF OFFICERS IN EACH GRADE 



1882 



1887 



1902 



1911 



General inspectors 

Administrators 

Conservators 

Chief of personnel 

Directors and professors 

Inspectors 

Assistant inspectors 

Forest assistants 

Inspector (assistant) in office 

Forest assistants, fourth and fifth classes. 
Forest assistants (office) 



6 
39 



189 
300 
213 



71 



41 

1 

3 

244 

234 

243 



65 



3 
36 

"5 
237 

228 
179 



56 



3 

37 

"5 
235 
223 
202 



46 



etc 



Total supervisory force. 
Total subalterns 



234 

584 



287 
554 



281 
463 



280 
471 



Totals . 



818 



851 



744 



751 



general guard may be open to them, although they may not have undergone the tests 
of passing out from the secondary schools. 

" For the success of the reform, I rely on the zeal and good will of officers of all grades. 
They will find in the new organization better chances of promotion, and will be able 
to devote a part of the time hitherto spent in the office to out-door work. To these 
advantages I hope that increased pay may soon be added, and in this expectation I am 
encouraged by the benevolent intentions of which the Minister of Agriculture has 
already given us so many proofs. In any case I can announce that traveling allow- 
ances will shortly be better proportioned to the actual expenses incurred by officers." 

8 For detailed data and names of officers see the Annuaire des Eaux et Forets, pub- 
lished annually by the Revue des Eaux et Forets. 



SALARIES 



271 



No change in 1912 in other grades.^ Reorganization under considera- 
tion. 

Salaries. — The yearly salary of a French forest officer is low^" and has 

* L' Administration Forestiere et des Transformations. By "P. F.," "R. E. and F. " 
pp."^618-620. 1911. These data on organization were checked by Lt. Col. Parde, 
Director of the Barres Ranger School. 

1° During the war they have received per diem allowances to compensate for the high 
cost of living. As a matter of fact these were entirely inadequate and were only $1 to 
$2 a day. The amount depended on rank. 

On account of the increased cost of hving, the following new salary schedule (retro- 
active to July 1, 1919) was approved by Deschanel on March 13, 1920. The salaries 
are in dollars at the normal rate of exchange: 



Class 


General 
inspectors 


Conservators 


Inspectors 


Assistant 
inspectors 


Forest 
assistants 


Professors 
at school 
of Nancy 


"Agents 

compatable" 

at school 


1 
2 

3 
4 


4,250 
3,860 

3,470 


3,470 
3,090 

2,700 


2,700 

2,-500 
2,310 
2,120 


2,120 
1,930 

01 

1,740 
1,530 


1,.3.30 

1,230 

1 clerical c 

1,140 

students 

770 


3,090 

2,900 

iuty 
2,700 

2,500 
2,310 
2,120 


1,740 
1,.560 

1,380 

1,200 
1,020 

880 


5 




6 











As a matter of fact these salaries at the current rate of exchange are about one-third 
the amounts listed in dollars because to-day (May 15, 1920) it takes 15 francs to equal 
a dollar. 

It is interesting to compare the French salaries with those paid in British India in 
1916, which are more than double those paid officers in the U. S. F. S.: Inspector general, 
$10,600 per year. Chief conservators, $8,600 per year. Conservators in three grades, 
$7,600, $6,800, and $6,000 per year. Deputy conservators and assistant conservators, 
$1,520 per year, rising by annual increments of $160 to a maximum salary of $2,800, 
when the annual increment becomes .$200, until a maximum of $5,000 is reached in the 
twentieth year of service. (While drawing pay up to and including $2,160, officers are 
styled assistant conservators, and after this deputy conservators.) 

The provincial Forest Service, recruited from the native population, includes: Extra 
assistant conservators, $1,000 per year, and rising by annual increases of $80 to $2,200 
in the sixteenth year of service. Extra deputy conservators, $2,300 per year, and ris- 
ing by annual increments of $100 to a maximum of $2,600. By special orders in each 
case an extra deputy conservator's pay may be raised to $2,800, $3,200, or $3,400, 
respectively. 

The subordinate force is paid as follows: Rangers, $200 to $800 per year. Deputy 
rangers and foresters, $60 to $160 per year. In Burma the pay ranges from $80 to 
$200 per year. 

For guards and other subordinates the pay varies, according to the standard of 
wages in the various provinces, from $28 to $60 per year. 



272 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 



always been considered too low when the nature of his work is compared 
with other branches where higher pay is received. The allowances for 
travel are on a per diem basis and increase with the higher rank. 



Position 



Classes 



General inspector 

Conservator 

Inspector 

Assistant inspector 

Forest assistant 

National forest school student. 



$2,509.00 

2,316.00 

1,302.75 

916.75 

636.90 

"231.60 



52,123.00 

1,930.00 

1,206.95 

820.25 

550.05 



$1,737.00 

1,090.45 

723.75 



$1,544.00 
993.95 



" Per year during school attendance. 

If an agent, such as an inspector or assistant inspector, is attached solely 
for office duty he receives the regular pay of his rank. Frequently a 
forest assistant or an assistant inspector who is poor at field work may 
be given a position similar to that of chief clerk. 

The rate of pay per year for the subordinate force (prepos^s) was 
(1918): 

1. Detailed as clerks: 

Special (office assistant) 12 3 

Rangers $328.10 $308.80 $289.50 $270.20 

Guards One class of $250.90 with free lodging. 

2. In the forest with free lodging: 

Special 12 3 

Rangers $308.80 $289.50 $270.20 $250.90 

Guards 250.90 231.60 212.30 193.00 

In addition to this schedule of pay every employee entitled to the 
forest honor medal for exceptionally meritorious work receives $9.65 
a year extra. While a ranger is at the Barr^s Secondary School he 
receives the full salary attached to his rank. All officers and subordinates 
receive a pension. 

Modern Organization. — The modern organization of the French For- 
est Service (the result of the 1888 decree) is as follows: 

It is under the Department of Agriculture and is managed by a Direc- 
tor General who is a Conseiller d'fitat. The different bureaus at Paris 
are under three conservators (corresponding to branch chiefs in the 
U. S. F. S.). These bureaus are divided into sections as follows: Per- 
sonnel and organization, areas, forest instruction, grazing and game, 
management, exploitation, reforestation, betterments, and fish culture. 
The two general inspectors are charged with the inspection of the work 
in all departments outside Paris. 



MODERN ORGANIZATION 273 

France proper is divided into thirty-two conservations. This includes 
Corsica ^^ which is listed as the thirtieth conservation. These thirty-two 
conservations are located at the following points: 

(1) Paris (Oise, Seine, Seine-et-Marne, Seine-et-Oise) . 

(2) Rouen (Calvados, Eure, Eure-et-Loire, Manche, and Seiiie-Inf6r,). 

(3) Dijon (Cote-d'Or). 

(4) Nancy (Meurthe-et-M. Meuse p., Vosges p.). 

(5) Chambery (Mayenne, Savoie, Haute-Savoie). 

(6) CharleviUe (Ardennes, Aube p., Marne). 

(7) Amiens (Aisne, Nord, Oise p., Pas-de-Calais, Somme). 

(8) Troyes (Aube, Cote-d'Or p., Marne (Haute) p., Yonne). 

(9) fipinal (Meur-et-M. p., Vosges). 

(10) Gap, Alpes (Hautes). 

(11) Valence (Ardeche, Drome, Vaucluse). 

(12) Besangon (Doubs, Terr, de Belf.). 

(13) Lons-le-Saunier (Jura). 

(14) Grenoble (Isere, Loire, Rhone). 

(15) Alengon (C6tes-du-Nord, Finistere, lUe-et-Vilaine, Morbihan, Orne, Sarthe). 

(16) Bar-le-Duc (Ardennes p., Meuse). 

(17) Magon (Ain, Saone-et-Loire). 

(18) Toulouse (Ariege, Haute-Garonne, Gers p., Tarn-et-Gar) . 

(19) Tours (Indre-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, Loire-Infer., Loiret, Maine-et-Loire). 

(20) Bourges (Cher, Indre, Nievre). 

(21) MouUns (AiUer, Creuse, Puy-de-D6me, Haute-Vienne). 

(22) Pau (Gers, Basses-Pyr6n6es, Haute-Pyr6n6es) . 

(23) Nice (AIpes-Marit, Var). 

(24) Niort (Charente, Charente-Infer., Vendue, Vienne). 

(25) Carcassonne (Aude, Pyr6n6es-Or., Tarn). 

(26) Aix (Basses-Alpes, Bouches-d.-Rh.). 

(27) Nlmes (Gard, H^rault, Lozere). 

(28) Aurillac (Haute-Loire, Aveyron, Cantal, Correze, Lot). 

(29) Bordeaux (Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Gar). 

(30) Ajaccio (Corse). 

(31) Chaumont (Haute-Marne). 

(32) Vesoul (Haute-Saone). 

At the head of each conservation there is a conservator. Each con- 
servation is divided into "inspections," comprising a number of forests, 
administered by an inspector; each inspection includes two or three 
"cantonments" under assistant inspectors or forest assistants (gardes 
generaux). The protective force includes rangers and guards; these 
employees are usually housed by the State. As compared with the 
United States the Forest Service administration in Washington corre- 
sponds to the central administration in Paris, but in France there is 
less centralization. The districts of the United States Forest Service 

" See Chapter IV, French Forests and Forestry. There are now three new conserva- 
tions in the restored provinces (a) Metz (MoseUe), (6) Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin), (c) Colmar 
(Haut-Rhin). See appendix, page 495. 



274 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

correspond to the conservations in France except that the conservations 
are really one-man positions and are consequently very much smaller 
than the seven large centralized districts in the United States. On the 
forests, the inspector corresponds to the supervisor, and the assistant 
inspector to the deputy supervisor or forest examiner, except that the 
assistant inspector may be in sole charge of a forest. The garde general 
corresponds to the forest assistant in the United States; the ranger and 
guard positions are the same except that in France these officers are 
in charge of definite areas rather than on special projects, such as large 
timber sales, as is often the case in the Western United States. In the 
central bureau at Paris the rank does not differ from the rank on the 
forests themselves. For example, a conservator or inspector may be in 
charge of a bureau or section, respectively, whereas in the United States 
a new position has been created, namely, that of assistant forester or 
forest inspector, when an officer is given special administrative work 
at the central bureau at Washington. In the Service des Eaux et 
Forets the responsibility is essentially personal for all lines of work; in 
the U. S. Forest Service there is a tendency to divide the work among a 
staff of specialists. In France forest operations are largely controlled by 
the working plan; at the time of writing there are no real working plans 
in operation on U. S. National Forests (see p. 219). There is no position 
in France corresponding to that of State Forester in the United States. 

Military Rank. — The corresponding military rank held by forest 
officers in time of war is as follows : 



Forest rank 


Military rank 


Guard 

Ranger 

Forest assistant 


f Private (first class) 
I Corporal 

Non-commissioned officer 

Lieutenant 


Assistant inspector 

Inspector 

Conservator 


Captain 

Commandant (battalion chief) 

Lieutenant colonel 



The Forest Service uniform is theoretically retained in time of war, 
subject to changes made necessary by general changes in color or material 
to conform with the Regular Army standard. It is customary to assign 
the younger forest officers to line regiments (usually, if not always, to 
the infantry) and the older men to executive and administrative work 
of various kinds. ^^ 

Education. — The officers of the French Forest Service are recruited 
chiefly from Nancy, the official State forest school established Decem- 

12 For a further discussion of administrative organization see French Forests and 
Forestry, especially pp. 18-21, 53, 101-105, 123-128. 



PROTECTION 275 

ber 1, 1824.1^ It is a 2-year course with extensive field work in local 
forests followed by a tour of all important regions. The ranger force 
is educated at Barres (Loiret) where there is an extensive botanical 
garden of exotic species. An excellent forestry course is given at (a) 
the Institut Agronomique and at (b) the Ecole Polytechnique; students 
enter Nancy after two years' study at (a) or (6). Guards are trained at 
Nogent-sur-Vernisson (Loii'e et Cher). 

As part of the forestry education and propaganda system there are a 
number of important societies ^^ and associations which aim at protect- 
ing and popularizing French forests. These have been arranged in 
alphabetical order: 

(1) Acad^mie d' Agriculture de France, of Paris, is interested in all branches of 
agriculture and has a silviculture section which specializes in all general forestrj^ ques- 
tions, such as physiology, development of trees and stands, wood utilization, manage- 
ment, reforestation, etc. It is interesting to see forestry made an integral part of 
agriculture. 

(2) Association Centrale Pour I'Am^nagement des Montagues, of Bordeaux, special- 
izes in restoring mountain areas by improving grazing lands, in creating woodland on 
poor ground, and in reforesting mediocre grass land. 

(3) Club Alpin Frangais, of Paris, furthers the reforesting of denuded mountains. 

(4) Comit6 des Forets, of Paris, a syndicate of forest owners, has to do with the 
improvement of private forest property, and especially its administration and exploita- 
tion. 

(5) Soci6t6 des Agriculteurs de France, of Paris, entirely independent of the Govern- 
ment, is active in all branches of the theory or practice of agriculture and silviculture. 

(6) Soci6t6 Forestiere Frangais des Amis des Arbres, which has a section at Paris 
and affiliated sections in the departments, conducts propaganda for the improvement 
and the creation of forests, planting of fruit trees, and betterment of grazing lands. 
It also supplies seed and planting stock to its members. 

(7) The Soci6t6 Forestiere de Franche-Comte et Belfort, of Besangon, aims to im- 
prove technical methods and furthers reforestation on uncultivated land and grass land. 

(8) Soci6t6 Gay-Lussac, of Limoges, organizes a congress each year on "Trees 
and Water." 

(9) The Touring-Club de France, of Paris, has a section of "Land and Forests" 
which conducts an active campaign for preserving beautiful forests, reforestation, 
reclamation of eroded mountains, and general forest betterments. 

PROTECTION 

Introduction. — The prevention of damage of all kinds must depend 
on the practicability and cost of prevention. Logging operations result 
in unavoidable damage and in war-time logging much of the finesse of 
European methods had to be waived. But even in France most of the 
damage is by fire, although only in the Provenge (chiefly from the 
Italian border to Marseilles) and in the Landes and Gascogne is inten- 

" See Huffel, Vol. Ill, for further data. 

" This list was obtained for the writer by Captain Fresson. 



276 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

sive fire protection necessary. In these localities the danger of fire is 
so great that even costly protection has frequently failed and large 
areas have been burned. Owing to the excessive fire damage in the 
Maures and I'Esterel (Var) a special fire protective scheme was first 
legislated in 1870 and revised in 1893. The main provisions of the law 
are: The use of fire in any form is forbidden during July, August, and 
September within 656 feet of forest or brush land, except upon special 
authorization; at other times charcoal kilns, and other dangerous use of 
fire, can only be located at the risk of the owner or contractor. Special 
police powers are accorded both private and public forest officers. Owners 
of forest or brush land which is not entirely cleared of undergrowth may 
be required by neighbors to open cleared fire lines 65 to 164 feet in 
width to be built half on each owner's land. Railroads are also required 
to clear and maintain fire lines 65 feet from the track; if not completed 
the work can be done under the direction of forest officers at the expense 
of the railroads. To encourage road building a subsidy of $932 per 
mile was granted for suitable roads built within the Maures and I'Esterel 
area. (See p. 285 for additional details.) 

In 1918 and 1919, however, there were disastrous fires in the Landes 
and in the Maures and I'Esterel regions because, owing to the war, the 
undergrowth could not be systematically cleared. The Engineer (for- 
estry) troops salvaged more than 120,000 cubic meters (about 30,000,000 
feet board measure) of fire-killed timber in the Landes alone. The 
chief fire preventive measures in France ^^ have been fire notices, look- 
out posts connected with telephones, tool depots, fire lines (to fight 
from, since the French hold that "one should never count on a fire line 
to stop a fire by itself") 33 to 66 feet wide, and secondary fines 3.3 to 
6.6 feet wide, and, finally, cutting of inflammable undergrowth (an 
efficient means of fire prevention, but expensive). But unquestionably 
the fire prevention and fighting practice in the United States is on a 
greater scale and is farther advanced than in Europe; consequently the 
opportunity for developing forest-fire technique has been larger. Per- 
haps the greatest lesson to be derived from the intensive protection in 
France is that with dense and inflammable brush under a pine high forest 
no measures are reasonably certain unless the underbrush is kept cleared. ^^ 
Even intensive fire lines will not prevent or stop dangerous fires if there 
is underbrush and high winds during a drought. In France the protec- 
tive measures against birds, mammals, fungous diseases, dangers following 
windfall, or snow damage have not been so intensively developed as in 
other European countries. There are three main reasons for this. 

IB Jolyet, pp. 581-586. 

16 See also French Forests and Forestry, T. S. Woolsey, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 
for conclusions in Algerian and Tunisian fire protection. 



SERVITUDES AND USE OF iMlNOR PRODUCTS 277 

(1) The appropriations for experiments of all kinds have always been 
meagre; (2) under the favorable climatic conditions usually prevailing 
in the rich forest regions there is not the same danger and damage as in 
countries like Germany; (3) with natural regeneration on such an 
extensive scale, ordinary damage is usually discounted by having such 
a bountiful oversupply of seedlings or saplings. The protection of 
forests against trespass is discussed in this chapter under "Legislation." 
Forest trespass in such an old established forest region as France is natu- 
rally well controlled, but the general principle has been evolved that the 
good will of the neighboring population is much better than repressive 
measures and very complex inspection control. French measures for 
protecting forests from damage have most value to the American forester 
practicing under intensive market conditions. 

Damage from Logging.^^ — The best time for logging broadleaves is in 
the late winter and operations in coppice are suspended in France pend- 
ing the two months following the rising of the sap, since at that time 
young trees are easily injured. It is current practice to cut the branches 
off large trees when they must be felled into reproduction, but this prac- 
tice may be abandoned because of expense and lack of skilled labor. 
It has been found better to cut the lower branches first. In a fir forest 
it is considered better to cut the stem into fairly short lengths, since 
the dragging of long logs is the cause of most of the damage in the Vosges 
and the Jura. Thinnings in hardwood forests are made in the sum- 
mer so far as practicable in order to discourage sprouting. Sliding and 
dragging logs on erodable ground should be kept at a minimum. As a 
rule, hardwood high forests suffer less damage from lumbering operations 
than do resinous ones, but the damage is almost always proportional to 
the length and weight of the stems removed. 

Servitudes and the Use of Minor Products. — A necessary evil in 
many forests (see p. 261, "Legislation") is the free use or sale of dead 
wood, dead stumps, brush, litter, leaves, grass seed, mushrooms, plants 
of various kinds, stone, sand, heather, or peat. Such material is often 
given for a few days' work or sold, or the local peasants may have cer- 
tain rights (or servitudes). While there is real need for certain of these 
minor products, the use is often abused and frequently results in damage 
to the forest. The dead wood and leaves make valuable humus and 
even the removal of dead branches is often deleterious. Even grass is 
sometimes needed to protect reproduction (see p. 68), and the removal 
of moss often means the trampling and damage of seedlings. Seed 
collection obviously reduces the seed supply if not properly restricted, 
and if it is not carefully supervised results in damage. Such an inno- 
cent pastime as gathering wild strawberries has often resulted in damage 
" See La Foret, pp. 260-305. 



278 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

to young stands. Often the undergrowth may be required to preserve 
forest conditions and the removal of the soil itself sometimes means 
uncovering the roots and later results in local erosion. To sum up: As 
a result of experience in France regarding the removal of minor products 
the concensus of opinion is that it often results in damage to the forest 
and should be restricted ^^ so far as practicable. 

Excessive Pruning. — The removal of "epicormic" branches from the 
boles of standards (in coppice-under-standards) is often practiced, but 
French foresters agree that it is rarely advisable to remove branches 
over 0.4 of an inch in diameter. ^^ If practiced at all it should be done 
in the middle of the summer or in the autumn. Ordinary pruning of 
green branches to improve the appearance of the bole is generally for- 
bidden. When pruning must be done the wounds should preferably be 
covered with pitch, except in the case of maritime pine or trees which 
heal cuts by resin flow. Sometimes the removal of branches from trees 
soon to be cut is advisable in order to increase seed bearing. Conifers 
generally should not be pruned, and even dead branches should not be 
removed from light-demanding trees since the wind will break them off 
at the proper time. Dead branches on shade-enduring trees are a sign 
of bad health. 

Damage by Birds. — Owls and other mice-eating birds are encour- 
aged since they destroy rodents; but sparrows and other birds which 
destroy immense quantities of seed must be combated. Poisoned 
seed and shooting are the usual combative methods. While it is 
recognized that all birds destroy insects and should consequently be 
encouraged, yet French foresters have found in practice that they 
do not destroy insects in sufficient numbers to actually prevent insect 
infestations. 

Insect Damage. — It is proverbial that coniferous trees suffer more 
from insects than do broadleaves and a pure conifer stand is most liable 
to damage. It is often necessary to fell or hum whole forests when once 
an insect attack gains headway. 

The methods of insect control in France are to first secure the life 
history of the insect doing the damage and then to be on the lookout 
for local damage and to at once fell and burn trees attacked so as to 

18 There is always a balance between the forest and the local climate which must not be 
disturbed. The writer recalls the disastrous results following the drainage of a stagnant 
lake or marsh near the top of a mountain in the Black Forest (Baden). After the 
drainage was carried out (a work which aimed at the improvement of the forest) a great 
many fir trees on the slopes below suffered severely from lack of moisture which they 
had evidently secured by seepage. 

19 An exception is where the lower branches in the crowns of standards are removed 
up to a diameter of 2 to 3 1 inches. 



DAMAGE BY GAME 279 

destroy the larvae. This principle is simple and is in universal use. 
In the words of Conservateur de Gail : ^^ 

"Local officers are instructed to carefully reconnoitre the trees attacked; fell, bark, 
and limb them at once, make a fire with the branches and throw the bark with its larvae 
into it." 

If the weather is dry and hot there is all the more danger and it is 
difficult to distinguish the trees attacked from trees damaged by drought. 
According to de Gail the value of the trees damaged by insects in the 
Vosges region was in a few years more than $67,550. It is obvious 
that large insect attacks demand special study by experts, but the for- 
ester's rule-of-thumb in France is to fell and burn at once all trees 
attacked by dangerous insects and to restock blanks with species which 
are resistant. A typical contract clause from the 12th conservation 
(Besangon) reads: 

"Alt. 18. Those trees sold which are found to be attacked by insects shall be felled 
and peeled as soon as they have been designated by the local agents; the bark, crowns, 
and branches unpeeled shall be immediately burned up 'sur place.' If the highest 
bidder or the contractor refuses to do this work within five days of the extra judicial 
summons which shall be made, there shall be official proceedings for these costs in con- 
formity with the provisions of Art. 41 of the Forest Code." 

Damage by Game. — Wolves and foxes are considered desirable in 
forests since they destroy quantities of field mice which are so destruc- 
tive of seed; foxes also eat considerable numbers of injurious insects. 
Wild boar are favored under some conditions since they destroy insects 
and mice and wound the soil,^^ thus favoring natural regeneration. On 
the other hand they eat seed and damage seedlings. Deer and stags 
are on the whole harmful to forests in nibbling tender shoots and bark- 
ing saplings (especially hornbeam) in spring, and for this reason fenc- 
ing is often necessary (see p. 77). Hare nibble the bark of young trees 
in winter and damage nurseries, and rabbits are especially dangerous 
in coppice and open pine plantations, both in destroying the bark of 
young shoots and damaging root systems. But, on the whole, if we ex- 
cept rabbit damage, game causes such insignificant loss that ordinarily 
it is considered advisable to stock forests so that hunting or shooting privi- 
leges can be leased. (See p. 326 for returns from shooting.) Squirrels 
eat seeds and shoots, especially the tender young bark of the spruce, 
fir, and beech. Mice destroy enormous quantities of seed, especially in 
artificial reforestation, and store a great deal which is never touched, 
even eating the tender bark of hornbeam and hazel. Apparently the 

2" Une Invasion de Bostriches dans les Vosges, Revue des Eaux et For^ts, April 1, 
1905. 

21 In the fir-spruce forests of British India the wild boar wound the soil and help 
regeneration. 



280 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

French consider that the best preventive for mice is the encouragement 
and protection of owls, buzzards, vultures, foxes, and cats. 

Damage from Grazing. — The French policy is to exclude goats 
and sheep from all forests without exception and only to allow other 
classes of stock, such as cattle and horses, when unavoidable, but never 
in broadleaf stands, where even logging teams must be muzzled when 
not at work. As explained in Chapter V (p. 69), hogs are sometimes 
driven through beech forests to wound the soil and assist regeneration, 
but this is rare, and hogs are never allowed to graze freely. In the 
United States the grazing of stock, so generally allowed on National 
Forests in the West, was an inheritance from the public lands adminis- 
tration. Admittedly much damage results, but at the present stage of 
our economic development in the West it is a necessary evil in the 
extensive conifer stands, but grazing of all kinds should certainly be 
rigidly excluded from our broadleaf stands if serious damage to young 
growth is to be avoided. Grazing is tolerated in the United States to 
a far greater extent than in France, and the damage will become more 
and more serious as the silvics of our species are studied and systematized. 

Fungous Damage. — The actual loss from fungus in well-managed 
forests is small. In the fir stands there is some damage from the so- 
called canker, and one of the most important objects of frequent thinnings 
is to remove trees infected with this disease in order to gradually stamp 
it out and prevent it from spreading to neighboring stands. The good 
results of this simple operation are evidenced by the small amount of 
rot in the final fellings. In a trip of more than a month's duration in 
the Jura the writer saw only two cases where timber cut was badly 
damaged by rot, and in one place the amount left in the woods did not 
amount to more than 10 per cent of the entire tree. In the remote 
inaccessible stands of the Pyrenees and Alps there is considerable defect 
because periodic thinnings cannot be made. In the Landes there is 
some damage from fungus in the maritime pine stands. This has 
been controlled by isolating with a ditch the groups of trees attacked so 
that the mycelium of the fungus cannot spread to the roots of other 
trees. This method, while still used, is not satisfactory; it is best to 
prevent the damage by ''depressage" or thinnings in seedlings or sap- 
ling clumps, since the damage is usually due to overcrowding. 

Windfall Damage. — The material loss from windfall is not great, 
since usually as soon as discovered and before it becomes worthless the 
down timber can be sold at approximately five-sixths of the full stumpage 
price.^^ The damage is mostly in the mountains, but occasionally occurs 

'^ A windfall in the Jura sold in May, 1919, at about five times the normal stumpage 
price of 1913. This was due to the abnormal shortage of softwood lumber and in- 
ability to import. 



DAMAGE BY FROST 281 

also in the plains. Especially with shallow-rooted species, such as 
spruce, the cut should be managed so as to proceed toward the wind. 
Usually in the mountain regions, where the damage from the windfall 
is greater because of heavier fellings, the selection felling must be 
used rather than the shelterwood compartment system. In the high 
forests under regeneration the windfall has been estimated to be twenty- 
three times as great as in uncut stands or in coppice-under-standards. 
Often belts of shelter trees managed under the selection system must be 
maintained around a forest where windfall is dangerous and zones of de- 
fense against wind in the mountains may often be maintained. Accord- 
ing to De Gail,^^ on January 30, 1902, a hurricane came from the north- 
east and resulted in windfall (in the Vosges) amounting to 1,206,755 cubic 
meters (about 302,000 thousand feet board measure) on a total area of 
215,757 acres, and amounting to 5.64 cubic meters (about 1.4 thousand 
feet board measure), per acre where the average stand was originally 
about 120 cubic meters (30,000 feet board measure) per acre. Equalling 
almost two and one-half years' growth it interrupted the sustained 
yield and resulted in increased labor prices and consequently diminished 
profits. It is interesting to note that the measures taken by the local 
conservator were: (1) The suspension of all regular fellings for the year 
1902; (2) extension of time for the timber sales of the past year; (3) 
payment for windfalls in four installments instead of wholly in advance; 
and (4) more than the usual time allowed for felling and removal. The 
average price received for this windfall, including branchwood, was 
nine-sixteenths the regular price, or a diminution of 44 per cent below 
normal because of the wholly unusual amount of timber thrown on the 
market. De Gail says the irregular stand stood the hurricane best, 
especially where there was a tremendous disparity in the height of the 
trees comprising the stand. The total estimated loss was as follows : 

Reduction in price $1,068,932.82 

Breakage 68,411.75 

Loss through felling immature timber 59.5,059. 14 

Extra forestation charges 17,885 . 31 

Derangement of working plans 11,580 . 00 

Damage to sawmills through excessive use 4,168. 80 

$1,766,037.82 

Damage by Frost. — The damage from hail, frosts, or ice (on trees) 
is considerable, and apparently there is no known preventive. In 
January, 1879, 41,666 cords of fuel wood were broken by an ice storm of 
unusual severity. Late and early frosts can be guarded against by 
using species which are not easily damaged and by maintaining a pro- 
25 L'Ourage de 1902 dans les Vosges, Revue des Eaux et For^ts, July 15, 1903. 



282 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

tective cover for such species as beech so as to prevent damage. Frost 
cracks, frequent in hardwood forests, let in rot and result in eventual 
damage. Quick changes of cold are most dangerous and apparently 
are more so on a sandy soil than on clay, clayey limestone, or peat. 
The damage is accentuated with thin l^arked trees. 

Damage by Sunscald and Drought. — Thin barked trees, especially 
when young, suffer from exposure to the fall rays of the sun. It is for 
this reason that severance cuttings are sometimes necessary; these are 
merely "the clearing of a narrow strip on the border of a young stand" 
to accustom the bark to the full intensity of the sun. 

In the forest of Saint Antoine (Vosges), there were at least eighty red- 
topped fir trees in one working group killed by the unusual drought of 
1911. It is of rather frequent occurrence to see spruce which has been 
rocked by the wind die from drought because the root systems have 
been weakened by having the rootlets lose contact with the soil. The 
damage was less with the selection system than with the shelterwood. 

Snow Damage. — Snow damage can best be controlled by early, 
frequent, and correctly executed thinnings. The most resistant French 
species against snow damage in the high mountains is the cembric pine. 
A recent (1911) snowshde ^^ below Mont Blanc overturned 23,000 trees 
which brought only 12 francs per cubic meter for logs and 3 francs per 
cubic meter for cordwood. This avalanche was started by a block of 
ice 2^ and, had not immediate removal of the timber been planned, it 
would have resulted in the starting of insect damage on the area de- 
stroyed. The actual physical damage by the avalanche itself was 
650 feet wide hut the wind pressure on each side of the snow extended it 
325 feet on one side and 650 feet on the other ; in places the total damaged 
area was more than 1,640 feet wide. 

Intensive Fire Damage. — In most sections of France there is compar- 
atively little danger from fire, the most dangerous portions, as might be 
expected, being in the conifer ^^ and brush forests of the South where 
the summers are hot and dry. French fire protection is most intensive 
in the Maures and I'Esterel because of the resulting damage and because 
the locality is an important tourist center where it is very essential that 
forest conditions be maintained in order not to damage the important 
pleasure grounds of the Cote d'Azur between Toulon " and Monte 

2* A method used by French foresters to prevent avalanches on steep slopes is to cut 
stumps 3 to 5 feet high above the soil in order that the stumps may hold the snow and 
prevent the starting of snowslides. 

2^ Most of the damage was due to the wind caused by the aoalanche and not by the 
snowshde itself. 

26 foy lightning damage there is, apparently, no prevention. 

'^ The best center for studying intensive protection is from St. Raphael. In the 
maritime pine forests of the Landes the student should go from Bordeaux to some center 
like Arcachon or Mimizan. 



FIRE PROBLEM IN FOREST OF L'ESTEREL 283 

Carlo. The damage from fires in the Landes is not so great because 
of the ease of regenerating the maritime pine after fires; the problem of 
reforestation is far less serious than in the Maures and I'Esterel country. 
The law of August 19, 1893, already referred to on p. 262, covered State, 
communal, and private forests. After establishing the nominal area of 
fire danger the law provided that from June to September open fire was 
forbidden within 656 feet of all forests or brush land without special 
authorization. The prefet or the conservator could grant permits for 
charcoal making, but it was provided that in case of damage the party 
burning charcoal would be liable. The law also provided that fire 
may be authorized on forests cut by fire lines, but the responsibility for 
damage would not be waived. The penalty for building fires illegally 
was five days in jail or a fine of $3.86 to $9. 65, and the responsibility of 
children or workmen was fixed on parents or contractors. Forest 
officers were given police powers, as were private guards after being duly 
authorized by the conservator or the prefet. According to Article 9 
of this law: 

*' Every owner of wooded land, forest or ground, covered with brush, which has not 
been entirely cleared may be compelled by the owner of similar adjoining land to open 
and maintain on his part along the boundaries of the two contiguous areas a fire line 
cleared of all brush or conifers and maintained in a thoroughly cleared state; the width 
of this fire line, to be established half on each property, shall be from 66 to 164 feet. 
Its location shall be fixed by agreement between the interested owners and in case of 
disagreement, by the prefet, with the approval of the conservator of forests." 

Railroads operating in this region are required to open fire lines and 
keep them cleared 66 feet from each rail within 6 months from the enact- 
ment of the law and entirely at the expense of the railroad. The debris 
must be suitably disposed of and if not it can be done by the Service 
of Waters and Forests and the cost assessed against the railroad com- 
pany. By special agreement in exceptional cases trees on fire lines need 
not be felled. 2^ The local mayor of the commune, or his deputy, or 
the highest official may alone start back fires without danger of civil 
suit in case of resulting damage. A subsidy of $932 per mile for the 
network of main line defense roads for this region was provided by the law. 

The Fire Problem in the Forest of I'Esterel (Var). — According to the 
local working plan, by Inspector Salvador in 1906, and subsequent 
official reports the following areas have been burned over: 

^ For a discussion of the problem of entire or partial clearance of fire lines see French 
Forests and Forestry already cited. 



284 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 



Period 



1833-1842 

1843-1852 

1853-1862 

1863-1872 

1873-1882 

1883-1892 

1893-1902 

1903-Aug. 20, 1912. 



Acreage burned 



11,120 
1,169 

4,989 

35.8 
4,381 

30 

86 
435 



Up to 1862 apparently the chief cause of fire was incendiarism, but 
since that time it has been carelessness, railroads, and the execution of 
improvement work. During the last period given in the above table 
fires on 297 of the 435 acres burned over were caused by lumbering 
operations. It is quite significant that out of a total of 21,999 acres 
burned over during the years 1838 to 1857 the amount was 17,310.16 
acres, and during 1858 to 1877 the area burned over was reduced to 
4,459.65 acres, and from 1878 to 1905 it was only 229.66 acres. Un- 
questionably the largest conflagrations have been due to the extreme 
droughts when even fire lines failed to stop the damage. The disastrous 
fires of 1918 were due largely to the lack of labor with which to clear 
out underbrush which is cleared out by day labor. Light burning is 
never permitted. 

Much the best example of intensive Federal fire protection is in the 
State forest of I'Esterel which is in the Nice Conservation (Toulon In- 
spection), with a forest assistant residing at Frejus near St. Raphael, 
Agay, and Le Trayas on the main line of the P. L. M. Railroad between 
Toulon and Nice. The total area of this forest is 14,226 acres, of which 
10,915 is forested. The boundary (34.7 miles) is marked by boundary 
pillars, and fire lines, half on the forest and half on bordering land, have 
been maintained since 1894 for the entire boundary in accordance with 
the law of 1893. There are no free-use rights other than right of passage 
for grazers and this is restricted to forest roads. The topography is 
hilly, two small mountains reaching an altitude of 2,020 and 1,788 feet, 
respectively, but the general relief is rugged. The soil is formed from 
volcanic rocks (porphyries), with some projecting ledges of schists. 
Red porphyry occupies alone more than two-thirds of the surface of the 
forest. It produces on decomposition a sandy soil which is arid, easily 
dried up and very permeable. The climate is typical of the French 
Mediterranean border, with extreme temperatures, hot summers, and 
mild and humid winters. The annual temperature is 14.5° C. (58.1° F.), 
minima of 6° C. to 8° C. (42.8° F. to 46.4° F.) are exceptional. The 
winds are frequent and very violent, the so-called "mistral" blowing 



FIRE PROBLEM IN FOREST OF L'ESTEREL 285 

from the northwest and northeast, but when from the northeast it is 
often accompanied by rain. Of an average annual rainfall of 35.7 
inches, half falls in the autumn and the remainder in the winter or in 
the spring. There is practically no rain during the summer months. 
Maritime pine (64 per cent of the stand) is the dominant species. The 
trees are characteristically distributed in groups with openings caused 
by past fires and stocked with heather. The cork oak is next in im- 
portance (26 per cent of the stand) but is not distributed over the whole 
forest. It is usually found in clumps generally localized at the foot 
of the porphyry slopes or below cliffs. The holm oak (6 per cent of the 
stand) is found on the rocky slopes and on steep escarpments along 
ravines. The aleppo pine is found chiefly along the ocean on a narrow 
zone of schists and on red sands, with some limestone soil in mixture. 
The chestnuts, the sessile oak, the maple and the nettle trees comprise 
1 per cent of the stand. 

In the first, second, third and sixth working groups, which alone are 
cut over by regular fellings during the first cutting cycle of 16 years 
(1903-1918), pines 10 inches in diameter and above, estimated at 204,343 
small trees, amounting to 75,909 cubic meters (about 10,000,000 feet 
board measure), were removed. The forest is divided into six working 
groups, treated by the selection system, both for the felling of conifers 
and for the collection of cork oak. During the years 1902-1911, 20,059 
cubic meters (about 2| million feet board measure) of wood netted 
$26,986.03; while 121,695 pounds of bark netted $41,457.56; and acces- 
sory products, including the hunting privileges, yielded $10,921.87; a 
total of $79,365.46 or an average annual yield in money of $7,936.55 for 
the forested area under management. This amounts to 61 cents per 
acre per year at 0.450 cubic meters (60 feet board measure) of wood 
and 94 cents for 27 pounds of bark. It is unfortunately true that fuel 
has practically no value, and consequently the yield from this source is 
insignificant. The average value of the soil without the timber is esti- 
mated at $15.44 per acre. The road and trail system is admirably de- 
veloped as follows: Thirty-five miles of roads 11.48 feet in width, eighty- 
eight miles of roads 8.20 to 9.84 feet in width, and 129 miles of trails. 
This road system is cut by two branches of the National Highway be- 
tween Toulon and Nice, one inside the forest and one along the ocean 
front, often outside the forest, called "La Corniche." There are no 
nurseries. Artificial restocking has been suspended since 1895, since it 
would obviously be poor business to plant or sow until the fire danger 
is better controlled. The products are sold locally and at Marseilles. 
There is no grazing nor is litter collection allowed. The lower limit of 
exploitability for the conifers is 13 to 15 inches in diameter depending on 
the working group. These sizes correspond to an age of 90 to 110 years. 



286 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

The cutting cycle is 16 years and the yield is based on number of trees. 
It takes 12 years for the cork to reach a thickness of 0.9 inch, the ex- 
ploitable size; it is worked on a cycle of two years. The forest is divided 
for cork oak extraction in two divisions, each comprising three working 
groups. The yield for each working group is calculated by dividing the 
number of trees of salable size in the working group by 16. In each of 
the six working groups there are also intermediate cuttings by area 
which aim at thinning young stands which are too dense, removal of 
damaged or dead timber and the freeing of promising clumps of cork 
oak. In reality the selection system practiced in this forest is not a 
theoretical selection of single trees but selection by groups. 

In addition to the maintenance of the forest houses, roads, trails, etc. 
(the communications cost about $1,544 a year to maintain), the protec- 
tion work takes first importance. This comprises a system of fire lines 
33 to 98 feet in width along the boundaries, on the main ridges, and 
along the main roads and trails. This system of fire lines covers 1,332 
acres. The fire protection also includes complete brushing, with root 
extraction, in the compartments where the trees are most susceptible 
to fire. The fire lines are cleared every 4 years and the brush every 8 
years. The fire lines cost $1.69 per acre to clear, and to grub the brush 
costs $5.02 per acre. In addition there is a complete telephone system 
connecting all the ranger stations with the lookout station on Mont-Vin- 
aigre and with the forest assistant's office at Frejus. The expenses for 
improvement work during the period from 1902 to 1911 were $10,586.44 
per year, or an excess of more than $2,509 over the revenue. The per- 
sonnel for this complete fire system includes two rangers without any 
assigned district and seven guards. Besides, during 8 months of the 
year, there are ten special guards for fire protection and for supervising 
betterment work. During the four summer months these special guards 
comprise a floating force to see that the law of 1893 is carried out. Of 
the nineteen employees cited, eighteen are lodged within the forest in 
eleven forest houses. The clearing of underbrush over large areas is 
the feature of this intensive fire protection. It means that even expen- 
sive and numerous fire lines cannot alone control fire under these danger- 
ous conditions. Otherwise it is certain that the French would never 
have gone to this unusual expense which has resulted in a deficit. 

"According to the rules for contractors issued for the twenty-third conservation 
governing the work in the Toulon Inspection, there can be no subcontract. The con- 
tractor cannot work intermittently, he must begin within 15 days of the contract award, 
and the details must be in accordance with instructions and orders and must proceed 
in logical sequence. 

"In addition, during the dry season from the first of June to the first of October, 
he cannot stop for more than a month the work which is in the course of execution 



FIRE PROBLEM IN FOREST OF L'ESTEREL 287 

under forfeiture without a specific reason. The workmen employed must be sufficient 
for the work in hand. All the weeds, shrubs, and plants of all kinds must be taken out 
by the roots. However the arbute and phyllaria will be only cut level with the ground 
upon designation by the local guard. The contractor will cut level with the ground 
all pines which are designated around cork oak and lop others to one-third their height. 
"Poorly shaped cork oak will be cut back level with the ground and all wood felled 
or extracted will be stacked. The products which cannot be utilized will be piled and 
burned in openings. Any fire, except charcoal pits, is forbidden from the first of May 
to the first of October and the location of charcoal will be designated by the local ranger 
and can be visited by employees or officers during the day or night for inspection pur- 
poses. Before the contract work is accepted there will be a general cleanup of the area 
cleared and weeds, etc., which have grown up will be burned. Then a month after the 
permit for work is issued the contractor must open a brush line 6.5 feet wide around 
the contract area in order to facilitate survey. On fire lines, however, this line will be 
opened up in the center. In case the contractor refuses to abide by the calculated 
area a re-survey may be ordered but it will be at the expense of the contractor in case 
the original survey is found to be correct. All loss to the contractor on account of fire 
or other natural causes will be at his expense, but in case the area which is being cleared 
is burned over, a re-estimate of the work may be made and the contract relet." 

The fire lines are usually 132 feet in width on the boundaries (that is, 
66 feet on the State forest and 66 feet on private land), 66 feet on the 
ridges but with an increased width of 98 feet where the danger is particu- 
larly great. The fire lines dividing the compartments are usually but 
33 feet in width. According to past practice thrifty oak or pine on the 
lines are usually left uncut, but the tendency now is to clear the lines of 
all cover, since the needles and leaves falling from the trees on these 
fire lines often partly destroy their value. An ideal system would be 
to plant the lines with non-combustible hardwoods. ^^ The second clear- 
ing of fire hnes cost $1.31 to $2.32 per acre, and the average cost per 
acre during the years 1906-1908 was $1.70. 

Ridge lines are almost invariably favored, since they (1) are better 
for fire fighting, (2) contain less timber, (3) are easier to clear, and 
(4) facilitate the direction of fire fighting operations. Side-hill lines 
are never constructed except where absolutely necessary along bound- 
aries. The lines which are cleared every 4 years become covered with 
rough grass, ferns, and weeds after 2 years, so that they would not stop 
fire without artificial aid. It is only hy the clearance of brush and debris 
throughout the forest that crown fires are prevented. 

"The complete brushing aims to entirely remove and burn the weeds. . . . This 
will materially improve the growth, assure a positive protection against fire for 3 to 4 
years, according to the soil. . . . One need not hesitate to profit at the time of 
brushing ... by making a first thinning in the maritime pine saplings . . . 
increases growth . . . and reduces the danger period." 

29 The American Consulate at Rouen, France, reported that the enclosure of conifer- 
ous forests with non-inflammable hedgerows of opuntia had been tried out. It is not 
known by the WTiter whether the experiment was successful or of practical value. 



288 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

The paths are cleared of pine needles twice a year — in October and 
May — and at the same time the trails are repaired. In the Toulon 
Inspection the needles fall in July and August during the danger season, 
and in May a path was noticed which was covered with needles. 

When fighting fire in this locality, even with fire lines, it is usually 
necessary to back-fire, although occasionally it is possible to station 
men along the paths or fire lines and beat out the fires with boughs. 
The night is invariably considered the best time for fire fighting, since 
there is less wind.^" 

Fire Insurance in France. — In theory there is more need for fire 
insurance of forests than there is of city dwellings. In practice there 
is but little forest-fire insurance even in European countries where the 
fire danger is much less than in America because the rates are so high 
that private owners cannot afford it, while it is the policy of govern- 
ments not to insure. A number of companies pretend to insure forests 
but most of them refuse when it comes to the point; they will only insure 
forests where the danger is so small that there is no object in insuring. 
Where the risk is great the rates are prohibitive. 

Ordinarily companies only insure broadleaf high forests, coppice, or 
coppice-under-standards which do not contain more than 10 per cent 
of conifers in mixture. The insurance of forests which contain a larger 
proportion of conifers than broadleaves or where the conifers are less 
than 10 years old is rarely agreed to, and then only in the north or 
center of France where the fire danger is much less than in the south. 
Insurance companies do not ordinarily insure the theoretical damage ^^ 
to management following fire or the loss of sprouting capacity. They 
refuse to insure cover, regeneration, felled timber and bark, and debris 
of every kind which has fallen on the ground. ^^ 

Typical rules concerning the insurance of forests are: 

"Based on the average price at the day of exploitation and based upon half of this 
average price if the forest is under management or on half the usual age at the time of 
felling if the forest is not run under formal working plan. 

"1. For the coppice. To value the capital insured by calculating the value of the 
cutting at different ages according to the amount grown at the time the fire takes place 
with policies fixed for 10 years and a re- valuation at the end of each decennial 
period. 

"2. For the reserves. To value the capital to be insured by classes by determining 
for each diameter class the value of the average tree and the average number of trees 

30 For Landes methods see pp. 203-205. 

31 For a detailed discussion of French damage appraisal methods see "Incendies en 
For^t," by Jacquot. This has been translated and published in English. A critique 
of (company) forest fire insurance is given by Jacquot in "Assurance des Forets Contre 
Incendie." Le Mans, 1909. 

32 "Assurance des Forets Contre ITncendie," par M. Deroye, Besangon, 1911. 



FIRE INSURANCE IN FRANCE 289 

to the acre. These classes would be established according to the size of the trees either 
by circumference or diameter. 

"3. For the establishment of stands. To value the capital to be insured by the 
amount necessary to restock the area forested, supposedly entirely destroyed, by means 
of plantations. This would include the purchase, transport and planting of the stock 
as well as the necessary accessory costs. 

"4. For the humus and dead cover. To value the capital to be insured by 
the sum necessary to replace the quantity of fertilizing material lost by means 
of manure appropriate to the nature of the soil. In this amount would be included 
the purchase, transport and spreading of the manure as well as all supplementary 
expense." 

The companies demand, for coppice and coppice-under-standards, 
a rate of 70 cents per $100 applicable to all the insured risks. They 
require besides a special tax of 10 cents per $100 for the risk of lightning. 
The French forester would prefer a variable scale of charges according 
to the risks and local conditions, depending on the vicinity of railroads 
or public roads, absence or presence of fire lines or brooks, existence of 
green vegetation, as well as danger from local industries such as char- 
coal burning. They hold that the risk should start at 50 cents per $100 
with increases of 5, 10, or 15 cents according to the supplementary risk 
of fire. They would also take into account the fire statistics based on 
the percentage of fires in the neighboring forests managed or not man- 
aged by the Federal foresters. Companies should charge, as they do 
not, the same rates for various risks. A special lightning risk should be 
eliminated in order to simplify the calculations. 

According to present practice the companies value the fire damage in 
the case of coppice by a simple proportion based on the actual age as 
compared with the usual a.ge at the time of felling. Moreover they 
diminish the amount arrived at by 4 per cent for each year remaining 
up to the usual age of felling . Finally they subtract the amount of wood 
salvaged after the fire; for the reserves according to their value at their 
average age at time of felling, diminished by depreciation from this age 
at the time of the fire, and further diminished by 4 per cent remaining 
before the usual age of exploitation; for forestation by the amount neces- 
sary to plant two plants per tree destroyed without the cost of remov- 
ing the stumps. French foresters hold that: (a) The coppice burned 
should be estimated at its actual age calculated according to the amount 
grown without any deduction made for salvage. (6) The reserves burned 
should be valued individually according to their value by classes with 
deductions for salvage, (c) The damage caused to growth should be 
calculated by the acre according to the amount insured, (d) The damage 
caused to the litter and humus should be calculated by the acre accord- 
ing to the amount agreed upon, (e) It is absolutely essential to establish 
in advance the rate of interest to be used in calculations, and the exploita- 



290 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

tion should also be insured except for the timber actually felled, which 
should be insured separately.^^ 

The rates prevailing in 1912 were as follows: 



Type of forest 



High forest, without conifers 

Coppice, or coppice-under-standards, with not to exceed 10 per cent of 

conifers in the stand 

Conifers 1 to 10 years old 

Conifers 10 to 15 years old 

Conifers 15 to 30 yeai'S old 

Conifers 30 to 50 years old 

Conifers older than 50 years 



Rate per $100 


•10.40 


0.70 


7.70 


3.85 


2.70 


1.95 


0.40 



It is curious to note that the rate for conifers older than 50 years is 
the same as the rate for a broadleaf high forest without conifers. This 
hardly seems fair, but according to French writers there is but little 
danger in old conifer stands, since insurance is limited to portions of 
France where the fire damage is at a minimum. There is not a company 
in France that would assume the risk of insuring aleppo pine stands along 
the Mediterranean — the risk is considered too excessive. Nor would 
they insure maritime pine stands in the Landes. The company, La 
Providence of Paris, charges approximately 20 per cent higher rates 
than those cited. Judging from the results thus far there will never be 
practicable fire insurance in France for stands where the fire risk is really 
great. But it is hoped that the day will come in the United States when 
forest-fire insurance will be possible for the majority of stands. 

BETTERMENTS ^* 

Forest Houses. — Very substantial houses are constructed for the use 
of French rangers. They are of fire-proof construction, with cement 
floors, tile roofs, and stone or cement walls. On the large forests the 
ranger house is sometimes in the center of the ranger district even if it 
is some distance from local villages. In such cases the problem of 
transportation is a simple one, since all the roads are suitable for bicycles. 
Where practicable the tendency is to locate the ranger station on the 
outskirts of or near local villages. In one or two instances double houses 
for two guards and their families have been tried, especially in out-of-the- 
way places, but this arrangement is rarely successful. 

Roads and Trails. — The roads are generally of two main classes — 

23 A translation of a French forest fire damage calculation is given in the Appendix, 
p. 534. 

3* See French Forests and Forestry already cited. 



ROADS AND TRAILS 



291 



paved and unpaved. Paved roads are first-class in every respect and 
are usually maintained by the State, being macadamized and each 
length of road being in charge of a separate laborer outside the employ 
of the Forest Service. A great many forests are traversed by first-class 
main route national highways which are always kept in perfect condition. 
The dirt forest road is maintained by a charge on the purchaser of tim- 
ber, a certain tax being added for road maintenance, usually amounting 




Fig. 21. — A graded trail, which serves as a compartment boundary, and which can 
be used by tourists. 

to about 4 per cent of the purchase price. In the Landes the sand 
makes cheap dirt forest roads impossible and the roads are merely 
lanes cut through the forest, covered with branches and pine needles so 
that the wheels can get traction. Near the frontiers special permission 
must be secured before building forest roads on account of their strategic 
value to the enemy in case of an attack. One unfortunate feature of 
French State forest roads is illustrated by the roads in the forest of 
Levier in the Jura; here the forest roads were laid out at right angles 



292 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 



along compartment boundaries whereas they should have followed 
the contour. This mistake in alignment is often encountered. Trails 
rarely have a grade of more than 12 per cent and are kept in excellent 
repair. One feature is the provision for adequate drainage and up-keep. 
The drainage is often secured by placing a cross-piece of wood, 6 or 7 
inches in diameter, so that when the water runs down the path it is 
deflected as soon as it reaches the wooden barrier; it is raised 1 to 2 
inches above the level of the path. Trails that are used largely by 
tourists (see Fig. 21) are marked with distinctive paint that corresponds 
with guide maps used by the Touring Club de France. 

Boundaries. — The boundaries of all French forests are accurately 
marked and some of the former royal forests are surrounded by stone 
walls. There are usually at least stone boundary pillars properly 
chiseled and marked in red, giving the number of the compartment 
working group and the serial number of the boundary post. For example, 
54 E 1 would mean boundary post No. 54, compartment E of working 
group No. 1. In the forest of Risol in the High Jura, the compartment 
boundaries usually follow roads and trails, but a few had to be blazed and 
marked through the forest. On each side of the road along compart- 
ment boundaries there is a letter every 50 yards or so giving the number 
of the compartment. Where two boundaries join both sides are marked 
in order to avoid confusion. When it is considered that the area of a com- 
partment is usually as small as 35 to 50 acres the intricacy of boundary 
up-keep may well be realized. A favorite method of marking is to paint 
the border tree with a white square with the letter in red in the center. 

In the thirty-second conservation (Vesoul) the following specific 
directions were issued regarding boundary ditches: 

"Ditches. — New ditches or those repaired will be designated on the ground by the 
local agent. . . . They will have the full dimensions." 





Vertical depth, 
inches 


Width 




At top, 
inches 


At bottom, 
inches 


1. Boundary ditches 


39 
24 
20 
IG 


79 
59 
47 
26 


8 


2. Border ditches 


8 


3. Ditches for drainage 

4. Ordinary drains 


8 
4 







As an alternative: 

"And if it is recognized by the local agent that the nature of the soil prevents the 
construction of boundary ditches a stone wall may be substituted, solidly constructed, 
with a height of 39 inches, a width at the base of 31 inches and at the top of 20 inches. 
If there is no stone the wall may be replaced by an earth embankment 79 inches at the 
base and 39 inches high." 



GENERAL SALES PROCEDURE 293 

According to Article 19, forest boundary stones must be of good quality 
and for the outside boundary of the forest must be 31 inches high and 
8.7 by 7.1 inches square. They extend 14 inches above the ground and 
are engraved with letters 3.1 inches high. Boundary pillars of felling 
areas are 24 inches high by 7.9 by 5.9 inches square. They extend 7.9 to 
9.9 inches above the ground, and have numbers painted in black 2 to 
2.4 inches high. 

Maps. — - Separate maps, issued for each State forest, rarely give 

contours but include roads, trails, towns, villages, houses, telephone 

lines, ranger stations, fire lines, boundaries of forest, working groups 

and compartments, names of border forests, areas of compartments, 

alienations, ponds and streams. The usual scale is 1/20,000 or even 

larger.^^ 

SALE OF TIMBER 

General Sales Procedure. — There are five main steps necessary 
before French timber under forest management can be cut: 

(1) The working plan prescribes the area to be cut over in final fell- 
ings. Frequently the working plan also indicates, in the order of im- 
portance, when stands of timber should be cut, but considerable leeway 
is left to the local officer in charge, since a good deal depends upon seed 
years, the reproduction, weed growth, windfall, and other unforeseen 
accidents. 

(2) The trees on the area where the cutting is to be made are care- 
fully marked, usually under the supervision of an officer of the rank of 
deputy supervisor (assistant inspector) or forest supervisor (inspector). 
After the marking in any forest is completed the local inspector makes 
a formal report showing the number, size, and volume of the different 
species marked, and the approximate value. A minimum 'price is always 
established. 

(3) Announcement is made when an auction will be held and a detailed 
description of the timber to be sold is printed for general distribution. 
The data furnished include the location, the estimated products, bound- 
aries, method of removal, and assessed road charges, if any. 

(4) At the time appointed for the auction the bidders assemble and 
each lot or sale is auctioned off by calling the maximum possible price 
for the lot first and gradually reducing the price until a bidder calls 
"I take it." 

(5) After the sale is made and all charges paid in advance, cutting is al- 
lowed after certain formalities (see contract clauses) have been completed. 

The French sale on the stump is in reality a sale for a lump sum on 
the basis of the scale of the standing timber. 

The French consider that their method of selling timber standing is 

35 Por grazing, dune, and reforestation betterments see Chapters VI, VII, and VIII. 



294 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

more ocononiieal and suits the timber purchaser better than the Ger- 
man method of selhng in the log, since he can get the lengths that he 
prefers and, as he is in close touch with his local market, his judgment 
is likely to be correct. (See Appendix, page 498.) Selling the timber 
standing after the marking is completed is certainly cheaper, simpler, 
and better than to have the exploitation by day labor under State con- 
trol. The only disadvantage appears to be the danger of having some- 
what more damage done in the woods, since it is often difficult to 
supervise a large nvuuber of small operations going on at the same time. 
For this reason the contract clauses are very specific, particularly where 
they provide for damages in case sales methods are departed from (see 
also Chapter X, "Protection"). Upon the day and hour announced 
for the auction the proper officials assemble and the presiding officer 
explains the conditions of the sale. If the price bid goes below the 
estimated value then the bidding is stopped and the lot auctioned at 
a later sale. In the auction at Pontarlier (held July 4, 1912), the prices 
for State timber were 2.45 per cent above their estimated value and 
the communal sales 12 per cent above. If the value of the timber is 
estimated at 7,000 francs the bidtling will be started at. say 13,000 francs, 
the price being gradually decreased until one of the bidders exclaims 
"I take it." Where there is competition for timber the shouting often 
begins before the price is actually read, and where there is a tie the 
bidding is started over again, or the successful bidder may be chosen by 
drawing lots. Immediately after the public auction each bidder signs 
an agreement to purchase. The sureties are usually looked up and ex- 
amined as to solvency prior to the auction. This sale of $115,800 worth 
of timber in 102 lots at Pontarlier was conducted in less than an hour's 
time. Practically and theoretically this method of sale seems to pos- 
sess a great many advantages where the amounts sold are small, where 
there is keen competition, and where the utilization is intensive. 

Individual contracts, such as are used for large timber sales by the 
United States Forest Service, reciting in great detail the special felling 
rules for each individual sale, are unnecessary for the small French 
sales. The expense of repeating the rules and regulations would prove 
too great. Instead there are certain general rules which apply to the 
whole of France, with special clauses to cover necessary departures in 
each conservation. This is a simple and economical method which 
could be well copied to some ex-fent in the United States after our sales 
methods are standardized for each locality. For small sales the French 
Forest Service has a printed form of contract Avhich only requires the 
addition of routine data. 

Estimate and Appraisal. — In estimating a. fair price for timber the 
government allows a 10 per cent contractor's profit under ordinary 



ESTIMATE AND APPRAISAL 295 

conditions and up to 20 per cent where the risk is greatly increased. 
Although the sale is made by estimate and it is considered essential 
that very accurate estimates be made of the timber marked for cutting, 
based on a tree-to-tree count, yet, as a matter of fact, errors in estimat- 
ing occur. This does not necessarily mean a loss to the State, since 
bidders usually re-estimate lots they intend to bid on; a low estimate 
by the State merely means that the bid is that much higher per cubic 
meter or stere and the error in calculating the presumed products is thus 
discounted. All the State guarantees is that the number of trees in 
the size classes is accurate. Since the demand for timber is greater 
than the supply the competition for State and communal sales is suffi- 
cient to make the price depend upon competitive bid rather than on the 
minimum estimated price based on the costs of logging, transport, and 
allowed profits subtracted from the estimate sales price of the product. ^^ 
With the exception of a few large sales in the Pyrenees, timber sales 
are in small lots usually with intensive market conditions. The location 
of sales has nothing to do with the demands of the purchaser but is 
planned in the working plan according to the needs of intermediate 
cuttings and regeneration. If the boundaries of sales do not correspond 
to compartments the lines are clearly marked with paint. When there 
are extensive windfalls or where there are insect attacks special fellings 
are authorized. In communal forests special sales are often allowed to 
provide mainly for special improvements, such as a school house or 
town hall. It is as if the forest were a communal bank, safe-guarding 
the reserve capital of the inhabitants. 

There are three main methods of selling timber: (1) By the lot on the 
stump; such sales are the rule in France for saw timber sales and for cop- 
pice. (2) By unit of product; intermediate fellings are sometimes sold 

3^ A sample appraisal follows : Fi-ancs 

Building material: 60 cubic meters at 45 francs 2,700 

13 cubic meters at 35 francs 455 

Building material (small size) : 300 cubic meters at 25 francs 7,500 

119 cubic meters at 17 francs 2,023 

Fire wood: 45 steres at 7 francs 315 

297 steres at 5 francs 1,485 

Charcoal : 126 steres at 3 francs 378 

Total 14,856 

From which must be deducted the following: 

Contractors' 15 per cent 2,228.40 

Felling trees 732.00 

Cutting of branches 412.50 

Fuel and charcoal at 2 francs per stere 936.00 

Special work 450.00 

Fuel for local officers 108.00 

Special registration fees 25.00 

Total 4,891.90 

Net value of timber (14,856.00 - 4,891.90) 9,964.10 

Less 5 per cent for special costs 499.00 

Net total value 9,465.10 



296 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

on the basis of the material cut and stacked, since it is often difficult to 
estimate the product accurately in advance. (3) By unit of product after 
the timber has been exploited by the State; this method is rarely used. 

Before any timber sale is made it is customary to advertise the lots 
very widely, and there are strict laws against combinations or agree- 
ments to eliminate competition. The method of describing the lot to 
be sold differs somewhat in the different conservations, and according to 
the material to be disposed of, but as a rule the purchaser is given an 
exact and complete description of the product, the conditions he must 
work under, and his obligations for road repair or other charges.^' 

Orders have been issued to make small sales, because if large only a 
few of the larger manufacturing companies can compete. The writer 
attended the sale of 102 lots (each a separate small timber sale) at 

'^ Two examples of the data furnished purchasers are given below: 

(1) In the Oloron inspection a sale of timber to be removed in thinning was described 
as follows: 

Thinning on 4.91 hectares, including the felling of stems designated or to be desig- 
nated. 

Estimated product — 1 cubic meter of building material, 8 cubic meters of small 
building material, 80 steres of cordwood, 150 fagots. 

Boundaries — Correspond to the compartment. 

Logging — Existing roads. 

Estimated prices — 12 francs per cubic meter of building material, 6 francs per 
cubic meter of small building material, 1.50 francs per stere of firewood, 2 francs per 
100 fagots. 

(2) In the Saint Die inspection even more data were given in the booklet describing 
a regeneration felling. 

Art. 49 — Forest of Moyenmoutier (first working group), Balthazard Canton, 
Compartment 13 (Lot No. 1), Beat of, etc. 

Regeneration felling, 98 trees and 16 poles, to wit: 

Diameters: 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 

64 spruce: 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 5, 10, 9, 8, 7, 3, 3, 1 

33 beech: 9, 2, 2, 4, 3, 9, 1, 3, 
1 oak: 1 

Estimated product — Fir, 261 meters of sawlogs, 39 steres of fuel; beech, 61 steres; 
oak and miscellaneous, 3 steres. 

Boundaries — North Com.partment 1 2, east, same, south, second lot, west, communal 
forest of Raon-l'Etape. 

Sawmill — Use of the Federal sawmill Brisegenoux commencing with the day after 

the sale of December 31, 1910. 

Francs 
Charges — 1. Maintenance of roads 250 

2. Cutting ])ack beech 10 

3. Furnishing 16 steres of beech fuel for the forest house at 

Balthazard, making and transport being estimated at a 
value of 45 

Total charges 305 

Cleaning — Estimated at 5 steres of first-class fuel. 
Number of trees to limb before felling, 23. 
Etival railroad station, 6 kilometers. 



CUTTING AND LOGGING RULES 297 

Pontarlier (Jura) July 4, 1912, composed of dry, diseased, and wind- 
fallen trees. At this auction the lot estimates averaged 253 cubic meters 
(about 60,000 feet board measure and 30 cords) and $1,099.33, with 
average charges for road upkeep, etc., of $41.69. In this case it is noted 
that the "charges" amounted to about one-twenty-sixth of the sale 
value; in other words, a tax of about 4 ??er cent to he added to the sale 
price; but the bid is, in theory, 4 per cent lower. This method of mak- 
ing a charge on the purchaser for the upkeep of roads, for the delivery 
of fuel, etc., is somewhat similar to the requirements made on the U. S. 
Forest Service purchasers for piling, scattering, or pulling brush on 
timber-sale areas; the difference is that in France the "charge" is on 
the purchaser, so he bids that much less, while in the United States the 
charge is figured in the appraisal. Out of 65 lots on other forests in 
the inspection of Pontarlier regular fellings the largest sale made was 
for 747 cubic meters — the minimum 89 cubic meters and the average 
289 cubic meters. In the inspection of Saint Die the first 50 sales made 
on October 2, 1910, averaged 221 cubic meters, with the maximum at 370 
and the minimum at 116. The material sold both at Pontarlier and at 
Saint Die was almost entirely fir. In the inspection of Oloron, with oak 
and beech as the chief species, in sales made in 1911 the average number 
of cubic meters in any one sale (there were 11 sales that only included 
cordwood) amounted to 157 cubic meters, with a maximum of 732 cubic 
meters and a minimum of 6 assigned from those sales where there was 
nothing but fuel cordwood. This shows clearly how the policy of small 
sales is encouraged in France where conditions make this method possible. 
Cutting and Logging Rules. — With the sale of timber on the stump it 
is essential that the purchaser be given very minute directions how the 
exploitation should be conducted. The central office at Paris accord- 
ingly issues, from time to time, a printed circular giving clauses and 
conditions that govern sales procedure and exploitation. The last 
revision was made May 11, 1912, following closely the issue of June 22, 
1903, and May 27, 1909. Part III, "Exploitations," of this circular is 
of interest, and cutting on any timber sale must conform to these general 
conditions unless the local conservation in which the sale is made has 
issued ^^ modifications (see p. 298) to the general rules; the essentials 
are as follows: 

Payments must be made in advance of cutting; partial payments are only allowed on 
long-term sales. Before cutting begins the ranger must be shown the payment receipt. 

Estimates. — If the purchaser can show an error in the number of trees advertised 
he is given a pro-rata reduction. 

General conditions. — Timber cannot be piled outside the sales boundaries without 
special permission, nor is grazing allowed within the felling area. Sawdust and bark 
must be disposed of as directed. 

^^ See also the different methods in long-term sales, p. SOL 



298 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

Stumps must be cut with an axe in coppice fellings so that water cannot gather on the 
stump to cause rot, and in high forests the stumps must be sawed or chopped level with 
the ground. Where the stumps are removed the holes must be filled up. 

Surface of the ground. — Debris must be removed or burned as directed and cord- 
wood stacked as the cutting proceeds. Areas occupied by buildings must be leveled 
and reforested. 

Damage to regeneration and to the stand. — Trees so designated must be topped and 
limbed before felling and must be thrown up hill so as to cause the least possible damage. 
In coppice stands old stumps and weed growth must be cut level with the ground. 
Peeling of timber while standing is not allowed nor can debris or wood be left or piled 
on regeneration or against standing timber, nor can standing timber be damaged in 
any way. 

Penalties. — If reserved trees are damaged or destroyed by the exploitation they 
can be replaced by similar trees marked for cutting, or the purchaser may be required 
to pay cash at the rate of 3 cents to 9 cents per inch of circumference for standards, 
or 3 cents to 11 cents for high forest trees, but the timber so paid for remains the property 
of the State or commune. 

Seasons of cutting. — Cutting must be completed by April 1 and corded by June 1 ; 
logging by April 15, except for trees peeled, which must be cut by July 1 and corded 
by July 15. Necessary extensions of time may, for a nominal charge, be granted. 

Protection of forest betterments. — Roads must be maintained and kept free from 
debris and manufactured products, and all damage to any forest betterment must be 
repaired or paid for. 

Protection of cutting area. — Buildings or betterments made necessary by the sale 
must be built only on approval of the forest officers, and spark arresters are always 
required on smokestacks, the purchasers being held responsible for damage. 

Logging restrictions. — Hauling must be over designated roads and timber cannot 
be skidded on roads, rolled or shd down slopes, nor should logs or squared timbers be 
skidded on the felling areas. 

Miscellaneous provisions. — Three days before the check of the felling area pur- 
chasers must place stakes near all trees felled to facilitate inspection, the "A. F.," 
imprint must show upon all stumps or roots. 

Foreign labor. — Only a specified percentage of foreign labor can be employed on 
government sales. 

In unit of product sales the same rules apply and in addition the product must be 
piled by the price classes agreed upon when a joint scale is made; removal is onh' after 
specific authorization. In case wood is removed illegally, double the stumpage price 
can be levied and in addition punitive damages assessed. Extensions of time for logging 
costs 1.6 per cent the purchase price of the material not logged for each ten days. 

Supplemental to these general rules each conservation issues special 
clauses or modifies general rules which cannot be applied locally. For 
example, in the ninth conservation, which includes the fir and spruce 
forests of the Vosges, the use of the saw is authorized for cutting coppice 
when the stump measures more than 59 inches in circumference. Con- 
tractors are not obliged to top and cut the branches from designated 
trees before felling if they are willing to pay all damage for trees injured 
in any way. Felling of cordwood may take place at any time during 
the year and for any species in the inspection of Saint Die, Fraize, Sen- 
ones, and Remiremont, and in these districts the time for the removal 



CUTTING AND LOGGING RULES 299 

of the wood is extended to May 10, of the second year following the sale. 
The right to bark trees is granted in all fellings, but peeling trees stand- 
ing is tolerated only under special conditions. Firewood coming from 
felled trees must be made up within 48 hours after felling. Sliding logs 
can be authorized by the conservator under exceptional circumstances 
when it is necessary, but special care must be taken to protect the public 
and to assume responsibility in case of accident. The contractor is 
held responsible for all damage to unmarked timber. The fuel to be 
delivered to forest employees or to communes must be stacked by 
June 1 following the sale. Foreign laborers can be employed only up 
to a proportion of 20 per cent. When government saw mills are used 
special permit is necessary and the contractor must be responsible for 
the maintenance of the houses and for all equipment. Payments for 
the use of sawmills are made monthly and the contractor cannot claim 
any reduction in price because of fire or any other act of Providence. 
The contractor who, without special authorization, permits manu- 
factured material to remain more than 10 days around the sawmill 
will be fined 58 cents a day for each day thereafter. 

There is a good deal of similarity in the special clauses issued by 
each conservation, so these will not be repeated unless the wording 
is of special interest. In the twenty-second (Pau) conservation, which 
includes the western Pyrenees, the right to add windfalls or damaged 
trees to current sales is reserved, provided the total windfall does not 
exceed one-tenth the total original sale. If it does exceed 10 per cent 
the contractor can refuse to accept the windfall wholly or in part. In 
the high forest fellings it is provided that the trees marked for cutting 
can be barked standing. The sliding of the logs is permitted only in 
the felling areas designated as "mountain felling." Proper precautions 
to avoid accidents or damage must be taken by the contractor. In 
the coppice fellings the beech shoots (see p. 94) shall be cut above the 
stump of the last felling. Contractors may bark coppice trees stand- 
ing provided they make a circular incision at the foot of each stem at 
least 4 inches above the root collar. Special provisions are also made 
for delaying the clean-up on the felling areas to suit local conditions. 
When sales are made by unit of product the contractor must have the 
material ready for scahng within 2 months after the felhng is completed. 
The fire wood for forest employees, mayors, schools, etc., will be piled 
by steres and by bunches of 50 fagots for scaling by the local ranger 
not later than June 1 of the year following the auction. The reforesta- 
tion of areas occupied by huts, workshops, and charcoal pits need not 
be carried out unless specially provided for in the auction announce- 
ment. This work will be done according to the methods suggested 
and at the time fixed by the local ranger and in the presence of the local 



300 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

guard. Not more than 60 per cent of foreign workmen can be used in 
the mountain felling (see p. 302) and not more than 10 per cent for the 
other fellings. 

In the thirty-second conservation, at Vesoul, the special clauses are 
even more minute. 

According to Article 2: 

''Peeling oak. — Permission to pool is granted in all oak fellings. Peeling standing 
is only permitted if a circular incision is first made around oat'h stumj) 5 inches above 
the soil and provided that the felling keeps pace with the peeling. ..." 

According to Article 3 : 

"Method of felling. — Fellings shall be made level with the ground except for clumps 
of beech stool shoots which must be cut in accordance with the direction of the local 
agent. The use of the saw is authorized in high forest fellings for all trees and in cop- 
pice fellings for trees measuring more than 59 inches in circumferenco at breast high. 
The local agent can authorize stump extraction in the reserve fellings on condition that 
the resulting excavations shall be carefully tilled and leveled, that these areas shall be 
planted before the first of April . . . with the species suitable for the soil, at 
the rate of two per square yard, in accordance with the directions of the forest agents " 

According to Article 4: 

"Cleaning, extraction of iveeds, arrangement of brush. — In the high forest fellings, 
the contractor must cut level with the ground not later than the first of November of 
the vear following the sale ... in accordance with the demand of the local ranger 
all trees damaged, bent, or injiu-ed by felling. . . . The branches from peeled oak 
may be scattered over the felling area between the stumps in accordance with the 
instructions from the local agents. In all the felling areas, the heather and weeds (if 
there are any designated in the marking record) shall be hoed up before the fifteenth 
of April of the year following the auction, except in the selection feUings and thinnings." 

Special provision is made for the pruning of branches on the trunks 
of coppice standards, which must be tlone l)efore Alay 15 of each year. 
Logs or trees can be dragged only in the interior of felling areas and 
not on roads paved or unpaved except Avith the express permission of 
the local ranger. Areas covered with huts or workshops must be leveled 
and planted at the expense of the contractor before April 1 of the year 
in which the sale is terminated. Not more than 20 per cent of foreign 
labor can be employed in the felling areas. Withes will be paid for at 
the rate of 58 cents per thousand. 

Very detailed directions are given for the classification of fuel to be 
delivered to the Federal and communal employees. 

"The fagots must be 4.36 feet in length and 32.5 inches in circumference. . . . 
Each fagot must be composed of 10 billets having a minimum diameter of 2 inches; 
fagots may be substituted by stacked billets having at least 8 inches circumference 
at the small end of beech, or hornbeam at the rate of 3 stores (3.6 stores — 1 cord) 
per 100 fagots. . . . 

In the twelfth conservation (Besangon), which includes part of the 
valuable Jura region, trees can be peeled standing and the contractor 



EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM SALE 301 

'^nay leave standing parts of the felling area difficult to log" after 
designation by a forest officer. Unmerchantable debris is burned if in 
regeneration fellings, elsewhere it is scattered. In coppice stands "oak, 
beech, ash, and maple seedhngs over 2.5 inches in diameter must be pro- 
tected." Here, bordering Switzerland, one-third foreign labor is allowed. 
Cleanings are limited as follows: 

"Art. 15. — The cleanings specified by Art. 52 (see Appendix) of the general ex- 
ploitation rules only pertains to stems at least 8 inches in diameter on the stump; the 
products of these operations shall be removed, corded, and stacked without delay at 
the designated places; they shall be delivered to the highest bidders at the price fixed 
by the contract, and in the absence of special stipulations at the price of 39 cents per 
stere and 58 cents per 100 fagots." 

Such minute and specific directions for all details of forest exploitation 
can of course be worked out only after years of experience. Specifica- 
tions are so well known by local contractors and lumber-jacks that it 
is hardly necessary for them to refer to written specifications which are 
part of their trade education. 

The utilization of timber sales naturally varies with the difficulty of 
transportation and with the local demand for by-products. In the Pyre- 
nees, on ground difficult to log and with an expensive haul, defective 
trees (such as would be logged in a government timber sale in the western 
United States) are merely girdled to make room for new growth, but may 
be left standing. Logs half or one-third merchantable are often left to 
rot. Even in the Landes where, during the war, saw timber stumpage 
prices rose to S16 to $30 per thousand feet board measure, the tops were 
usually left in the woods, since there was no local cordwood market and 
transport was impracticable; the same conditions prevailed during peace 
times. In most parts of France every portion of the tree has a market. 
For example (according to Captain Kittredge) in the Cote d'Or the market 
is intensive: 

"The trees over about 10 inches in diameter are cut into shingle logs, full length to 
a top diameter of 4 to 6 inches. The stems are hauled off the forest in this form. The 
material in the coppice and in the tops from 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter is cut usually 
into 52-inch lengths and piled for cordwood. 7'he smaller stems and branches from 
three-fourths inch to 3 inches in diameter are cut into 26-inch length sand piled. Later 
this wood is usually converted into charcoal right on the ground or hauled to a nearby 
hardwood distillation plant. The twigs below three-fourths-inch diameter are bound 
into bundles with limber twigs and hauled away for local use as kindling." 

Example of a Long-term Sale. — The sale of 236,000 cubic meters 
(about 66,000,000 feet board measure) extending over a period of 14 
years, made by the Inspection at Oloron in 1908, called for deviations 
from the regular sales methods of France. It is typical of methods used 
in Corsica in similar sales. Even before the timber was marked and more 
than two years before the bidding was called for, the local inspector ad- 



302 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

dressed circular letters to possible purchasers in order to interest them 
in the details of the proposed sale. He called attention to the necessity 
for a personal study of the timber and explained that after the marking a 
detailed synopsis of the estimated volume would be furnished them, 
showing the proportion between sawlogs and cordwood.^^ After the esti- 
mate was made the material to be sold was divided into "lots" and the 
amount of beech and fir in cubic meters was listed separately. The stand 
in each lot was carefully analyzed as follows : 

Situation, altitude, area. — These forests occupy slopes and are on fairly level ground. 
The slope facilitates logging. The total area is estimated at 14,209 acres at an altitude 
between 1,640 and 4,921 feet. 

Sizes of the trees. — Ninety per cent of the trees included in this sale are more than 
21.5 inches in diameter and 10 per cent from 12 to 21 inches. In the forest of Laune, 
there are very few fir that measure less than 25.5 inches in diameter and there are some 
as large as 63 inches. The height of the saw timber varies from 30 to 60 feet. 

Ownership. — - All of the forests are communal. 

Rights of vay. — There are no rights of way which must be bought. The roads 
belong to the forests and all the bordering ground belongs to the communes. 

Logging. — The purchasers can establish such roads as they deem necessary under 
the direction and with the approval of the Forest Service. This approval will not be 
refused. The alignment of the roads %yill be indicated by the Forest Service. More- 
over, the successful bidder can install necessary railroads but must negotiate with the 
communes for the right of \yay outside the forest. 

The sale. — The sale will be made by public auction. 

Contract conditions. — The contract will follow the general rules (see p. 297) of the 
Forest Administration suljject to certain modifications; special clauses will be drawn 
up to cover the sale. 

Price. — The estimated value of the timber is as follows: Lot No. 1, a maximum 
of 1.15 francs per cubic meter (about 78 cents per thousand board feet). I^ot No. 2, a 
maximum of 1.50 francs per cubic meter (about $1.01 per thousand board feet). Lot No. 
3, a maximum of 1.25 francs per cubic meter (about 83 cents per thousand board feet). 

Cost of logging. — Unfortunately lumber-jacks will have to be imported since there 
is no local labor available. It is estimated that the cost of felling will be about 19 
cents per tree with an addition of 19 cents per stere for cordwood. Unfortunately 
fire wood is not in demand locally, but perhaps small quantities can be sold at 6.50 
francs per stere delivered (about .1?4.50 per cord). Therefore the balance of the wood 
will have to be made into charcoal. Probably sufRcient labor can be imported from 
Spain or from the Vosges. 

Cost of transportation. — Much of the transport in the forest can be by nmles, oxen, 
and cattle. The ox is better for road work and the cattle better for work in the forest 
itself. The exact cost of transportation will vary according to the distances, the roads, 
difficulties of ground, etc., so no further exact data can be given. A good cow suitable 
for logging purposes costs locally from $58 to $68, while a mule costs $77 to $87. 

Merchantable material. — Fir is in great demand and brings good prices, since Ray- 
onne is only 87 miles from Oloron by railroad. At Oloron the local price is 50 francs 

39 In this locality it was estimated that 100 cubic meters of fir would equal 86 cubic 
meters of building material and 21 steres of fuel; 100 cubic meters of beech would equal 
82 cubic meters of building material and 27 steres of fuel. To reduce round timber to 
square timber purchasers were advised to multiply by 0.7854. It is likely that the 
policy of making large long-term sales will be abandoned by the French government. 



EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM SALE 303 

per cubic meter au carree ($23 per thousand board feet). The beech, which is gener- 
ally used for ties, sells at Oloron or at Mauleon at 48 cents each or 25 francs per cubic 
meter for squared timber ($11.50 per thousand feet). There is a good export demand 
in Spain where the beech is usually sent to Barcelona, the center of the industry. De- 
tailed data can be secured at this point. 

Profits. — As already explained, the maximum price will probably be 1.15, 1.50, and 
1.25 francs for the three lots, or an average of 1.28 francs per cubic meter (85 cents a 
thousand feet). The material being about two-fifths fir and three-fifths beech. Con- 
sidering 86 per cent of the fir and 82 per cent of the beech as building material, this 
means a net cost of 30 cents per cubic meter of saw timber or 38 cents for squared 
lumber which would bring at Oloron or Mauleon an average of about $6.76. 

These calculations upon which the estimated profit and stumpage 
price is based seem simple and primitive compared with the minute calcu- 
lations in the United States National Forest appraisals. Nothing is said 
of the cost of equipment, interest on the capital used, depreciation of 
equipment, nor cost of supervision. Rule-of-thumb methods are followed, 
and in the appraisal the contractor's profit was figured at 20 per cent. 

This sale was finally made in 1908, and it is interesting to note that the 
sale price was 19 cents per cul^ic meter (about 67 cents per thousand 
board feet) instead of the 25 cents (85 cents per thousand) estimated in 
the appraisal. According to the special contract conditions the sale, as 
finally made, covered 10,089 acres, comprising first-class merchantable 
material, but in part defective, damaged, diseased, or dying trees which 
were marked for removal for the improvement of the stand. These de- 
fective trees were partly girdled and partly felled in the actual operations, 
the choice being left to the purchaser. As in small sales in France, all 
the marking was completed prior to the formal auction. The sale was 
made in one lot, with provision for the division of the proceeds between 
the various communes interested, based on the volume of merchantable 
material marked in the forests owned by each, prorated according to the 
average rate received in each forest. At the auction the minimum pur- 
chase price was placed at .$37,635 and was decreased by jumps of $193 
until a bidder took it. The payment was made as follows : 

Within 10 days of the auction the successful bidder had to pay 10 per 
cent of the total purchase price and the remainder in twenty-four equal 
installments payable quarterly on March 31, June 30, September 30, 
and December 30 of each year, beginning with September 30, 1908, and 
ending June 30, 1914, inclusive. A discount of 1^ per cent per year was 
provided for if payments were made in advance of their being called for. 
The final date for removal of the timber was fixed at December 31, 1922. 
The compartments could be cut over in the order desired by the con- 
tractor, and more than one compartment could be cut at one time. 
Three years were allowed for felling each compartment after cutting once 
began. If the imprint of the official marking hatchet shows a tendency 
to disappear toward the end of the sale the trees already marked will be 



304 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 



re-marked by the Forest Service in collaboration with the contractor or 
his representative. Special timber not included in the sale and used for 
logging was to be charged for at the sale rate of 19 cents per cubic meter 
(67 cents per thousand feet). No claim can be allowed for ground which 
proves impracticable to log. Wood used for improvement of the roads or 
any other logging purpose must be purchased at the regular price. The 
contractor must within 6 months after the expiration of the sale remove 
all machinery and furnishings; but houses, workshops, or permanent 
betterments will become the property of the communes upon whose 
ground they are situated. No allowances were to be made for windfalls 
or other damages which may occur during the duration of the sale. 
Special charges aggregating $6,214.60 were made for improvements and 
roads used by the contractor and he had to deliver about 18 cords of 
fuel per year to the local commune. There are certain features of this 
sale which should be emphasized : 

(1) The stumpage price of 67 cents per thousand is far less than the 
stumpage for similar timber in the western United States. 

(2) The methods of logging were wasteful; the French policy was that 
the timber had been sold and the purchaser could use it or waste it as he 
desired. Marked unmerchantable trees could be merely girdled. 

(3) Permanent improvements, after the sale is completed, become the 
property of the commune. 

(4) No attempt was made to adjust the stumpage price during the sale 
period of 14 years; the price of 67 cents held during the entire period. 
The French felt that rise in timber values would mean proportionately 
higher operating costs. 

(5) The contractor's profit allowed was 20 per cent as contrasted with 
10 per cent in ordinary sales. 

Stumpage Prices.^" — The stumpage values in France under the 
intensive management that exists are of interest to the American forester 
because they give a rough indication of the prices that may be secured 
in this country after the supply of cheap virgin timber is exhausted. But 

*" The prices paid for manufactured lumber by the French Woods Service during 
1918-19 were approximately as follows: 



Species 


Class of product 


Francs per 
cubic meter 


Dollars " per 
thousand 
board feet 


Hardwoods 

Spruce-fir 

Pine 


Boards, etc 

Boards, etc 

Boards, etc 


180± 
160± 
140± 


79 

70i 

6U 



" Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1. 
But to secure offerings at these low prices the product had to be requisitioned for 



STUMPAGE PRICES 



305 



in making the comparison it must be borne in mind that no one can pre- 
dict what the future conditions will be, and whether changes in building 
methods will materially modify the demand for lumber, wood products, 
and timber. Then, too, what will be our cost of production and carrying 
charges? It is most surprising to find French communes prior to 1912 
selling good saw timber in the Pyrenees at 67 cents per thousand board feet, 

Army use. According to the French Forest Service the correct commercial prices in 
March, 1919, were as follows: 



Species 



Class of product 



Francs per cubic 
meter 



Current dollars <* 

per thousand 

board feet 



Fir-spruce 
Poplar. . . . 

Oak 

Beech 

Ash 

Elm 



Boards and dimension 
Boards and dimension 
Boards and dimension 
Boards and dimension 
Boards and dimension 
Boards and dimension 



250-300 

225 
300-350 

250 
350-400 
200-220 



100-132 

99 
132-154 

110 

154r-176 

88-97 



" Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1. 

These prices are excessive and are due to an acute shortage and to speculation, but 
in 1920 were still higher. 

The approximate prices asked by the American E. F. on the Uquidation of its stocks 
in France are as given in the table below. The main reasons for these comparative 
low prices, in the face of a large demand and acute shortage, were because of (1) need 
for quick sale, (2) difficulty of transportation, and (3) faulty manufacture as judged 
by French standards. 



Product 



Hardwood logs 

Spruce and fir logs, poles, and 

piles 

Spruce and fir boards 

Pine logs 

Pine lumber 

Pine props 

Standard-gauge hardwood ties.. 
Standard-gauge softwood ties.. 

Hardwood fuel 

Softwood fuel 



Unit 



Cubic meter. 

Cubic meter. 
Cubic meter. 
Cubic meter. 
Cubic meter. 
Linear meter 

Each 

Each 

Stere 

Stere 



Price at 

railroad, 

francs per 

unit 



82 

75 

160 

55 

130 

0.90 

10.40 

6.50 

25 

15 



Approximate equivalent 

dollars " per thousand 

board feet 



52| 

48 
70 
35 
57 
0.049 per linear foot 
57 
36 

16 per cord 
10 per cord 



" Exchange at 5.45 francs to -SI. 

In the final settlement these prices were reduced 10 to 20 per cent (or more for fuel), 
but even as they stand they are low even for very large wholesale operations. Until 
the market becomes stabilized by steady imports the prices will vary, owiilg to short- 
age of supply and to speculation. In France the stumpage price represents a larger 
proportion (often one-third to one-half) of the final market price than it does in the 
United States. 

See also "Private Forestry in France," page 320, for additional data on stumpage prices. 



306 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

simply because the logging and transportation was difficult, when similar 
timber in the Vosges and Jura on accessible forests was, in 1912, worth $9 
to $12 and more. Such a divergence in price seems extraordinary when 
one compares this price of 67 cents in the Pyrenees near a good market 
with the S2 to $3 received for accessible timber difficult to log in our 
western National Forests. Perhaps the American has solved the prob- 
lem of cheap large-scale railroad logging better than the French. 

As already emphasized in other chapters, cordwood values of two cen- 
turies ago have decreased and saw timber, especially softwoods and oak, 
has increased. During the war there was much speculation in timber- 
lands, labor was abnormally high, the value of the franc *^ had deprecia- 
ted, and transportation was extremely difficult, there was no real compe- 
tition with import timber from foreign markets because it could not be 
transported; all tonnage was requisitioned by the Allies solely for war 
needs. Then, too, many French merchants wanted to have their capi- 
tal in timberlands rather than in currency or loans. 

Before reviewing average local prices it is well to emphasize some of the 
shortcomings and difficulties of giving average price figures. As in other 
countries there are "variables" which affect the price of all classes of 
timber — distance from market, cost and difficulty of logging, kind of 
cutting (clear cutting or light thinnings), cultural and betterments costs, 
other economic difficulties and expenses, species, size, quality, local and 
general demand as compared with the local and general supply, and cost 
of imported timber. Then, too, abnormal or unusual sales, such as occur 
after heavy windfall, bring less than regular sales. Quite frequently a 
local shortage, as in Haute-Savoie during the war, leads to unusual values ^ 
because in France there are distinct local markets. This is surprising 
considering the small size of the country and the comparatively short 
hauls necessary to enter the general market. It is partly due to the 
effect of permanent forest production which protects and maintains small 
local industries and prevents the local market from being exhausted. 
Under normal conditions the price of French stumpage is the market price 
for the manufactured product less the cost of cutting, logging, transporta- 
tion, manufacture, and contractor's profit. In most sales the auction 
price must be increased by so-called charges for road repair and damage to 
other forest betterments and growing stock, which in the aggregate aver- 
ages 5 per cent of the stumpage cost. The French usually distinguish 
three classes of product: (1) Fuel, (2) saw timber, and (3) miscellaneous 
products (such as bark). The price of cordwood depends on its size; the 

*' With a gold reserve of only 16 per cent the French paper currency is really promis- 
sory notes issued by the French Government with no date set for liquidation. 

^ Spruce and fir timber on steep rocky slopes, difficult to log sold in 1918 for over 
100 francs per cubic meter or over $6.3 per thousand feet board measure for the stump- 
age secured. 



STUMPAGE PRICES 



307 



standard length is now 1 meter (3.4 feet). While diameter classes may 
differ in various parts of France the following is the usual classification: 



Class 


Size and specification 


Usual price 

ratio " on 

basis of 

stere 


Quartier . . 


Over 4.7 inches in diameter outside bark at small end. 
Split wood 






100 


Rondin * 

Charbonnette 

Fagots 


From 1.97 inches to 4.7 d.o.b. Round 

From 0.98 inches to 1.97 d.o.b. Round 

Less than 0.98 inches d.o.b. Small branches 


66 
33 


liourrees 


Small "fagots" or bundles of twigs 




Charcoal 


Made mostly from charbonnette 











" Subject to wide variation. 

* Sometimes two classes of rondin are distinguished (a) small rondin and (6) large 
rondin. 

The price of saw timber (bois d'ceuvre) also varies according to the 
classification of the product: 



Class 


Size and specification 


Usual price 

ratio on basis 

cu. m. 


Bois de Service or construction 


(See footnote 45) 


00 


Bois d'Industrie or travail 


(See footnote 45) 


50 


Bois chauff age 


(See preceding table) 


15 



The minimum diameter of saw timber varies considerably. Oak and 
beech is used to 9.8 inches for ties, softwoods to 5.9 for saw timber, and 
2.7 to 3.1 inches for mine props. 

In the "log" and lumber market prices are usually for round logs 
(grume or au reel) but may also be for: 

Squared timber with some wane (au carree) equal cubic volume of round^ log 
X 0.7854. 

Squared timber normally without wane or sap (au J e deduit) equal cubic volume 
of round log X 0.5026. 

Squared timber without wane but with some sap (au ^ e deduit) equal cubic vol- 
ume of round log X 0.5454. 

Squared timber without wane but with all sap (a vive arete) equal cubic volume of 
round log X 0.6366. 

The ratios between the different methods of commercial sales are as 
follows : ** 

*3 "Volume grume" is the cubic volume of a round log based on a cylinder with the 
diameter equal to the middle circumference of the log; it is also called "au r4el" when 
referring to standing timber or stumpage. For further details see Cubage des Bois. 
R. Roullean., Paris, 1905. 

** Carnet — Agenda du Forestier, Besangon, 1902, p. 92. 



308 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 



From 


Au i sans 
deduction 


Au i sans 
deduit 


AuJ 
deduit 


Grunae 

(logs) 


A vive 
ardte 


Meter cube grume (round logs) . . . 
Meter cube grume au j sans deduit 

Meter cube grume au g deduit 

Meter cube grume au J deduit 

Meter cube grume au 1*5 


0.7854 

'l'4406 
1.5625 
1.2337 


0.5454 
0.6944 

0^0851 
0.8567 


0.5027 
0.6400 
0.9216 

0^7896 


'1^2732 
1.8335 
1.9895 
1.5708 


0.6366 
0.8106 
1 . 1672 
1.2665 







In other words 100 cubic meters of logs are equal to 78 cubic meters of 
logs squared according to the j rule, or 54 cubic meters by the | rule. 
Inspector Montrichard has invented a slide rule by which can be read the 
contents of a log (a) grume, (6) au |, (c) au |, or (d) au ^ of known 
diameter or circumference and length. The principle of a comparison of 
log rules by the use of a slide rule has wide application in the United 
States. 

There are frequent misunderstandings, however, because in one lo- 
cality logs are sold round (or " au reel ") while elsewhere the prices quoted 
are for squared timber "au carree," and because of different methods of 
measurements (see p. 207). Thus to speak of French stumpage rates in 
exact terms it would be necessary to give at least the data enumerated 
below; obviously in general averages such minute data are out of the 
question: (1) Region (and forest), (2) haul, (3) species, (4) kind of fell- 
ing (and area to be cut over), (5) charges, (6) size of trees, (7) per cent 
(a) saw timber and (b) cordwood. 

The forests of the Vosges, Jura, and Savoie are comparable to the 
coniferous forests of Vermont and northern New Hampshire except that 
(1) the road system in French forests is already constructed and logging 
is therefore that much cheaper, (2) the cutting removes a smaller per- 
centage of the stand, and (3) there is a better market and therefore more 
competition for the stumpage. To secure an exact line on French stump- 
age rates on timber in these fir-spruce forests logs were scaled on timber 
sales in 1912, resulting as follows: 



(a) In a good stand of silver fir (final felling) 1.1 miles haul to tramway and 10.5 
miles from Fontarlier, ten logs averaging 16 inches d. i. b. and 13| feet in length sold 
for 28 francs per cubic meter; 6.6 cubic meters sold for $36; the scale of these logs by 
the Scribner Decimal C rule amounted to 1,350 board feet or .$26 per thousand feet 
board measure on the stump. Adding 5 per cent for all charges the rate is $27.30 per 
thousand feet board measure. 

(b) In the forest of Gerardmer with a wagon haul of 3 to 4 miles to a broad-gauge 
station three-fourths spruce and one-fourth fir (intermediate fellings) brought only 18 
francs per cubic meter. The sale of a representative number of logs (averaging 6 to 
11 inches d. i. b.) by the Scribner Decimal C rule netted .$21.40 per thousand; which 
increased 5 per cent for charges is $22.47 per thousand feet board measure. In other 



STUMPAGE PRICES 309 

sales in the same forest the rates (based on an actual scale of the logs) were (1) (average 
d. i. b. 4.4 to 15.6 inches) $22.17 per thousand feet board measure or $23.27 with 5 per 
cent added for charges; (2) (average d. i. b. 6.4 to 11.5 inches) $19.73 and with 5 per 
cent added $20.72. 

(c) In the rich fir forest of Noir^mont secondary fellings brought $21.62 per thou- 
sand feet, or $22.70 with the 5 per cent added. Here the haul was longer than in 
Gerardmer. 

(d) In the Jura (forest of Frivelle) small piilpwood on the stump from thinnings 
was $3.47 per cord. 

(e) In the forest of Risol (Jura) stumpage was about $19.30, or with 5 per cent 
added $20.26. 

(/) In the forest of Mouthe (Jura) fine timber near the road cut in final fellings 
brought $27.50 per thousand feet board measure, or with 5 per cent added $28.87. 

(g) In the forest of Chotel (with a 26-mile downhill haul for the lumber) the price 
for fir was $24 to $25.20 a thousand. This high price was due to competition between 
local mills. 

From the foregoing figures it is safe to say that in 1912 //le best fir-spruce 
stumpage, easy to log, sold for $20 to $25 a thousand feet board measure 
or four to five times the then current price in northern New England 
which was between $4 and $8 per thousand feet board measure. Since 
the war stumpage prices in France have increased to a greater degree than 
in the United States. 

A comparison of stumpage rates ■^^ in the various regions, on the basis 
of average sales gives a lower price and is less exact but nevertheless of 
interest. In the table which follows the ratio between thousand feet 
board measure and cubic meters has been varied according to the 
estimated size of the timber; this explains why 60 francs per cubic 
meter of fir is less than 60 francs per cubic meter of oak and why 55 
francs per cubic meter in the Cevennes is more than 55 francs in the 
war zone. Maritime pine which takes 4 cubic meters to the thousand 
board feet is relatively more expensive (per cubic meter) than fir which 
takes 3 cubic meters to the thousand. The same applies to small 
Scotch pine. 

^6 For statistical purposes it is presumed that in mature conifer stands cordwood will 
comprise 10 per cent of the yield (under French logging conditions) and in mature hard- 
wood forests 20 per cent; the amount of cordwood varies, but to simplify the calculations 
the average saw timber rates have been merely increased 10 per cent and 20 per cent; 
this provides for the loss in saw timber but allows nothing for the 10 per cent to 20 per 
cent of cordwood stumpage received by the purchaser in lieu of that much saw timber. 
The normal rate of exchange has been used. 

"Boise d'Oeuvre" or timber included: (1) "Bois de service or de construction" 
includes (a) "Charpente" or construction timber of considerable size, the exact dimen- 
sions varying with the different markets; (b) ties; (c) telegraph poles; mine props. 
(2) "Boise d'Industrie ou de Travail " may be (a) "sciages," boards, and scantlings of 



310 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

TABLE 24. — COMPARISON OF PRl^WAR AND WAR STUMPAGE 
PRICES FOR SAW TIMBER PAID BY THE A. E. F. 



Region 



Vosges 

Jura 

Central 

Plateau 
liandes . . . 
C^vennes. 
Brittany. 
Allier 

Cevennes . 
Brittany . 
Allier. ».. . 
War Zone 
Vosges 



Chief of species 



Conifers — 

Spruce 

Fir 

Fir. . ........ 

Maritime pine 

Scotch pine. . 

Broadleaves — 

Oak — beech. 



Average 
pre-war 
prices, 
francs 
per cubic 
meter 



22 
20 

18 
11 

15 



30 to 45 



Approximate 
dollars per 
thousand 



14.00 

12.75 

11.45 
9.30 

12.70 



24 to 36 



Average war prices 
1918-19 



Francs 

per cubic 

meter 



55 

58 

37 
28 
33 
35 
30 

70 
55 
60 
55 
41 



Approximate 
dollars per 
thousand 



34.75 
37.00 

23.50 
24.00 
28.00 
28.70 
25.50 



47 to 32 



° Based on data collected V)y the American Delegate, Interallied Timber Executive 
Committee, Paris, France. 

* Chiefly Haute-Marne, Meuse. In this connection see the stumpage rates given on 
p. 320, Chapter XI. 

It is especially with hardwood logs that the price per cubic meter 

varying length, width, and thickness according to local species and market; (6) "Bois de 
fente" cooperage stock, etc. 

As an illustration of French lumber grades the following "Sciages du Jura" 
is given: 



French term 



Planches alignes, first class 

Planches alignes, first class 

Planches alignes, first class 

Planches alignes, first class 

Planches alignes, second class 

Planches alignes, rejects 

Lambris alignes (renf.) first class Recette. . . 
Lambris alignes, second class (large etroite) . 
Lambris alignes (minces) first class Recette. 

Lambris, second class (large 6troite) 

Lambris-rivages (bords non parallelles) 

Planches brutes 

Lambris brutes 

Dauves de long de 2 pi (0.65) a 4 pi (1 .30) . . . 

Lettes et liteaux. Long 3a 12 pieds 

Tvpes les plus usitds: 8/18, 12/8, 12/12, 12/15, 

^12/18, etc _. 

Lames-parquet (length variable) 



Width, inches 



12.80 
11.71 
10.65 
4.26- 7.48 
4,26-12.80 
4.26-12.80 
8,74^12.80 
4.26- 7.48 
8.74-12.80 
4.26- 7.48 



3.19- 5.32 
0.71- 1.60 



0.04- 0,07 



Thickness, inches 



0,98-1,08 

0,98-1.08 

0.98-1.08 

0,98-1,08 

0,98-1,08 

0,98-1.08 

0.71 

0.71 

0.52 

0.52 

0.42-0.71 

1,08-1.60 

0,52-0,71 

0.71-0.98 

0,71-1,08 



0,71-1.08 



STUMPAGE PRICES 



311 



varies widely with the size. For example the official price for oak in the 
Meuse department in October, 1918, was as follows: 



Diameter, breast height, inches 



Approximate dollars 
per thousand 



7-11... 
11-17... 
17-24... 
Over 24 




These prices are about 30 per cent to 50 per cent over the pre-war rate. 
The price of beech is usually about two-thirds that of oak and the 
larger the size the more marked is the difference in price. 

Before the war cordwood was difficult to dispose of and all the small 
material (charbonnette) was made into charcoal before it could be moved 
from the forest. During the war the coal shortage doubled and tripled 
prices. In the Haute-Marne the averages for all State hardwood-fuel 
sales on the stump w^ere as follows : 



Class of product 



Francs 
per 

stere 



Approx. 
dollars 
per cord 



Francs 
per 
stere 



Approx. 

dollars 
per cord 



Francs 
per 
stere 



Approx. 
dollars 
per cord 



Quart ier 

Rondin 

Charbonnette 



5.30 
3.10 
0.35 



3.70 
2.10 
0.24 



7.80 
5.70 
1.20 



5.40 
4.00 
0.83 



15.00 

11.00 

5.00 



10.40 
7.60 
3.50 



These prices are typical of average conditions in France; most of the 
salable fuel comes from the tops of hardwood trees or from coppice. 
Softwood cordwood has but little value in the Landes or in the mountains. 
Near the large towns the prices in the above table may be largely ex- 
ceeded. The American E. F. settled most of its cordwood purchases 
from State or communal forests at 9 francs per stere for quartier, 6 francs 
for rondin, and 3 francs for charbonnette. A large purchase in the Cote 
d'Or was recommended for settlement at a flat rate of 5.50 francs per 
stere ($3.80 per cord). This was about double the 1914 rates.^^ 

There has been much speculation regarding future French prices. 
Unquestionably in the general market prices will fall to the level estab- 
lished by the cost of imports and will be below war rates, but much 

^8 It should be noted that the early 1919 exchange rate was 5.80 francs to one dollar; 
toward the end of 1919 it was 10 to 11}^ francs to the dollar, but all conversions have 
been made on the normal value of the franc, 19.3 cents. 



312 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

higher *^ than the 1912 price level because the demand for timber will 
exceed the supply for years to come. For the next few years the prices 
may go even higher because of the depreciation of the franc and because 
of unrestrained speculation. 

Additional original data on stum page prices during the past century 
has been supplied (March 27, 1920) by the Directeur General des Eaux 
et Forets, from the official archives at Paris, but M. Dabat states in his 
letter of transmittal: 

". . . . I must call your attention to the fact that since the price of timber is 
not under official control, the figures below have only a relative value . . . they 
only indicate .... and are not exact data on the price variations during the long 
period examined." 

" According to data furnished by Colonel Sutherland, C.B.E., the average market 
price of pitwood, "ex ship Cardiff" has been as follows: 



Year 


Dollars per ton 


Year 


Dollars per ton 


1910 


4.70 


1915 


8.76 


1911 


5.31 


1916 


11.22 


1912 


5.39 


1917 


16.79 


1913 


5.49 


1918 


15.86 


1914 


5.56 


1919 


15.86 to 13.42 



The dollar has been figured at the normal rate of $4.87 to 20 shillings. It is 
significant that the English coal mines are withholding their orders and are now re- 
fusing to pay the high war rates, and on January 1, 1920, report the market " glutted." 
A ton is equal to about one cubic meter; it takes 3.6 stacked cubic meters to make 
one cord. The relative imports (chiefly from France) from the " board of trade returns 
of imports of pitprops and pitwood " in million carloads are as follows: 



Year 


Million loads 


Year 


Million loads 


1902 


2.0 


1911 


2.9 


1903 


2.3 


1912 


2.9 


1904 


2.3 


1913 


3.45 


1905 


2.1 


1914 


2.5 


1906 




1915 


2.1 


1907 


2.4 


1916 


2.0 


1908 


3.0 


1917 


1.0 


1909 


2.6 


1918 


0.7 


1910 


2.8 


1919 


1.5 



STUMPAGE PRICES 313 

(a) State Forest of Trongais ( Allier) , oak saw-timber stumpage prices : 



Year 


Francs per cubic 


Approx. dollars per 


meter 


1,000 board feet 


1S20 


34.00 


26.00 


1830 


36.50 


28.00 


1840 


43.00 


33.00 


1850 


30.00 


23.00 


1860 


51.00 


39.00 


1870 


53.00 


40.75 


1880 


32.00 


24.50 


1890 


42.00 


32.25 


1900 


60.00 


46.00 


1910 


70.00 


53.75 


1920" 


170.00 


130.50 



" Estimated. 



(6) State Forest of Ban d'fitival (Vosges) fir saw-timber stumpage 
prices : 



Year 


Francs per cubic 


Approx. dollars per 


meter 


1,000 board feet 


1835-1870 


10.00 


7.00 


1871-1889 


13.50 


9.50 


1890-1899 


15.00 


10.50 


1900-1909 


20.00 


14.00 


1910-1913 


22 00 


15.50 


1918 


60.00 


42.25 



(c) State Forest of Gerardmer (Vosges), fir saw-timber stumpage 
prices : 



Year 


Francs per cubic 


Approx. dollars per 




meter 


1,000 board feet 


1870-1879 


9.. 50 




6.75 


1880-1889 


11.00 




7.75 


1890-1899 


11.50 




8 00 


1900-1909 


14.00 




9.75 


1910-1913 


20.00 




14.00 


1918 


60.00 




42.25 



314 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

(d) Gerardmer Region (Vosges), hardwood cordwood stumpage 
prices : 



Year 


Francs per stere 


Approx. dollars per 
cord 




1830-1839 


5.00 


3.50 




1840-1849 


6.00 


4.20 




1850-1859 


5.50 


3.85 




1860-1869 


5.50 


3.85 




1870-1889 


6.00 


4.20 




1890-1899 


6.00 


4.20 




1900-1909 


5.60 


3.92 




1918 


16.00 


11.20 



(e) Port of Clamecy (Yonne), coppice cordwood ready to load on canal 

i-a + c • 



boats: 



Year 


Francs per stere 


Approx. dollars per 
cord 


1817-1827 
1837-1847 
1857-1867 

1877-1887 
1897-1907 
1913-1918 


10.30-14.50 
11. OO- 8 00 
10.00- 9 00 
12.00-11 00 
10.00-12.50 
9.50-25.00 


7.21-10.15 
7.70- 5.60 
7.00- 6.30 
8.40- 7.70 
7.00- 8.75 
6.65-17.50 



A study of these figures shows: 

(1) There have always been higher saw-timber stumpage prices during 
and after great wars ; and that investors who placed their money in forests 
in 1914 would have been spared the losses due to the depreciation of 
French currency. 

(2) Stumpage values for saw timber during the past century have about 
doubled and since the war have been almost three times the pre-war 
value. 

(3) Stumpage values for cordwood have remained a^30ut the same for 
the past 100 years, but during the war they almost tripled owing to the 
shortage of coal throughout France. 

(4) The prices charged the American E. F. by the French Government 
(see p. 310) were much less than the current commercial average rates. 
Some of the difference in price is due to the fact that the timber cut by the 
American E. F. took fewer cubic meters to the thousand board feet than 
that sold the average customer. 



CHAPTER XI 
PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

General Discussion (p. 315). Trend of Private Ownership, Areas and Systems of 
Management, Legislation Against Deforestation, Forestry as an Investment, Money 
Yields from Public Fir Forests (Jura-Doubs), Drawbacks and Advantages to Forest 
Investments, Indirect Benefits. 

Examples of the Best Private Forestry qj. 323). Three Notable Forests, The 
Grand Domaine of Arc-et-Chateauvillain (Haute-Marne), Forest of Amboise (Indre- 
et-Loire), A Fir Forest (Vosges), Conclusions. 

GENERAL DISCUSSION 

Trend of Private Ownership. — In 1912, when the last statistics were 
compiled, seven-tenths of the forest area in France was privately owned 
and with the possible exception of the Landes and Gironde this forest 
area was largely in small holdings. Out of ten departments, taken at 
random, there were 97,710 owners, each with less than 25 acres of forest, 
the average holding being 3.2 acres. In the Puy-de-Dome department 
101,510 acres were in the hands of 32,684 persons, and around Paris 31,085 
owners divided 50,787 acres. In all France it is safe to say that there are 
less than 100 famihes that own more than 5,000 acres each. From the 
national and political standpoint this era of small forest holdings is 
beneficial. It has been stated that social upheavals will be prevented by 
this division of forest and agricultural land. But other things being 
equal forests divided into small ownerships benefit a nation but deterio- 
rate the stand. The reason is that the peasant cuts spasmodically to 
satisfy his needs in the village or farm, to realize on his capital, or to 
allow an estate to be settled. The large owner on the contrary can afford 
to employ a competent forester and can manage his forest as a permanent 
producing business, based on a sustained annual yield. Or, better than 
this, the rich landlord may increase his growing stock and improve a de- 
teriorated stand.^ The kings and nobles formerly owned the best high 
forests in France and to-day the best of the private forests are unquestion- 
ably in the hands of the old nobility and the new industrial millionaire. 

1 The Count de Grancey, the largest private owner in the Cote d'Or, had increased his 
coppice rotations and was increasing the number of standards. It was unfortunate that 
some of his best stands had to be requisitioned and cut for the A. E. F. fuel supply. 

315 



316 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

But nevertheless many of the great forest properties are disappearing ^ 
because the higher cost of operation usually reduces the return to less than 
3 per cent. 

Areas and Systems of Management. — No less than 15,988,857 acres 
of forest (out of a total of 24.4 million acres) are in private ownership. Of 
this 610,901 acres are unproductive; 4,856,214 acres in coppice; 5,856,947 
acres in coppice-under-standards; 106,314 in conversion; and less than 
one-third, or 4,558,481 acres, in high forest. In other words more than 
two-thirds of the private forests are in coppice or coppice-under-standards, 
and in 1912 less than 1 acre in 100,000 was being converted to high forest. 
The individual clearly wants his forest to yield returns frequently and he 
desires but a small amount of capital tied up in growing stock. Therefore 
it is only when local conditions almost force the high forest on the private 
owner that he holds this class of stand. In the Landes and Gironde, in 
parts of the Sologne, in mining districts where there is a great demand for 
props, and in the mountains where coppice will not thrive, he must fall 
back on the high forest. In order to still further reduce the capital tied 
up in growing stock the private owner invariably chooses shorter rotations 
than does the technically trained State forester. It is not infrequent 
that private coppice is managed under a 6- to 18-year rotation, whereas 
the State forest coppice would be at least 25 to 40 years. For spruce or 
fir the public forest rotation would be 120 to 180 years and the private 
forest 30 to 120. A similar difference exists in pine stands, although this 
difference is less marked with maritime pine than with Scotch pine. 

Legislation Against Deforestation. — All through the later forest 
history of France the Government has always tried to restrain the private 
owner and force him to conserve his property. " The files of the 
Chamber of Deputies are full of projects that menace forest property," 
wrote Bonnevoy, the Rhone deputy, in commenting on proposed con- 
servation laws. Yet from 1815 to 1870 the State itself sold no less than 
871,401 acres =^ of pubHc forest for $59,251,000! 

With the necessity for restraining the private owner it is not sur- 
prising that there should be a stringent law against the "clearing of 
private timber" revised and reenacted in 1859 (see p. 263). 

The owner is given an opportunity to present his argument at a 
public hearing. It is my impression that the law is leniently applied 
but in notable instances large properties have been held to be essential 
forest land and could not be clear cut. Most French laws benefit and 
protect the private owner, especially against theft, trespass, and fire. 

2 The great forest of Eu-et-Aumale was sold in 1912 for $1,883,500 to a company which 
was preparing to clear cut. This the Government was unwilling to allow and was, there- 
fore, planning to purchase it as a State forest. 

3 Du R6tablissement de Nos Forets, par Ch. Broilliard. Besangon, 1910. 



FORESTRY AS AN INVESTMENT 



317 



Where the owner of lan'd has mismanaged it and allowed erosion or 
drifting sand to destroy its value, even then the State must buy the 
land before reclaiming it, notwithstanding the resulting common good for 
the community. If land is being damaged by overgrazing it can be 
reserved from further use, Ijut during a 10-year period the value of the 
rental must be paid the owner, and if after that period forestation is 
deemed necessary, exappropriation, with payment, is obligatory. 

The dunes, as well as the mountain reforestation areas which have 
been restocked, are exempt from taxation for a period of 30 years. Other 
plantations are exempt for 20 years only and this applies also to the 
restocking of blanks which have existed for at least 10 years before the 
passage of the law.^ Even during the war, where the power of Army 
requisition had been extended to cover standing timVjer needed by the 
Allies as well as by the French people, the rights of the individual were 
fully protected. In fact an individual with political power could some- 
times evade the requisition. The conclusion is that the property rights 
of the individual are practically free from obnoxious State control, and 
that in fact every encouragement is given the private owner to practice 
forestry. 

Forestry as an Investment. — Many writers (even such an eminent 
authority as •Broilliard) have argued that money in savings banks paying 
only 2| to 3 per cent interest^ had better be invested in producing 
forests. In forest valuation it is customary to use low interest rates for 
calculations. Certainly one reason why this is done is because usually 
if rates of 4 per cent or more are adopted for the basic interest rate the 
forest investment shows a decided loss. Yet even here there are notable 
exceptions as in the Landes where it was estimated that by somng sand 
wastes, soil formerly worth an average of 77 cents per acre is now selling 
at $54 to $93 per acre. We know that it cost some 10.3 miUion dollars 



* L'Impot sur le revenu des Forets, S. F., XI, 5, pp. 372-375. 

^ The interest rates paid by the French Government have varied from a maximum 
of 8.6 per cent (in 1816) to a minimum of 3 per cent, the prevailing rate in 1901. Not- 
able variations in these rates, due to wars and revokitions, are shown in the following 
table (after Huffel) for 100 years: 



Year 


Per cent 


Year 


Per cent 


Year 


Per cent 


Year 


Per cent 


1816 


8.60 


1832 


5.06 


1854 


7.8n 


1870/ 


4.95 


1818 


7.52° 


1841 


3.13* 


1855 


4.61 


1870 ff 


7.42 


1821 


5.79 


1845 


3.95 


18.59 


4.83« 


1871 


6.23 


1823 


5.58 


1847 


3.88 


1861 


4. 32 


1886 


3.75 


1828 


3.87 


1848 


5.00« 


1863 


4.50 


1901 


3.00 


1830 


3.92 






1868 


4.32 


1918 


6.83 



"and 7.45, »and 3.50, '^and 6.64, ''and 4.69, «and 4.00, -^Aug., ''Oct. 



318 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

to reforest 1.6 million acres, or about $6.41 per acre. As a national 
investment this has certainly paid. It has created enormous wealth in a 
region formerly poverty stricken and unhealthy. But from the stand- 
point of the individual to-day the investment is not so attractive, because, 
if the sale value is compared with the revenue it is seen that land worth 
(with its growing stock) perhaps $54 p^r acre nets year in and year out 
about $2.22, or about 4.1 per cent. According to Huff el'' the average 
returns from private forests were, in 1892, 1.16 cubic meters (about two- 
thirds to three-fourths of this is fuel) worth 67 cents per acre per year 
(2.90 cubic meters and 16.80 francs per hectare). If we place a soil and 
growing stock value of only $30.88 per acre (400 francs per hectare) 
the net return is about 4 per cent. The return is probably less than this. 
According to French data the lower the soil values the better the forest 
investment but the higher the risk from fire, fungus, insects, and acts 
of Divine Providence. This seems logical because the risk in the manage- 
ment of maritime pine on Landes sand is unquestionably greater than in 
the thrifty coppice of the Cote d'Or on rich well watered soil. 

According to Hujffel's definition the soil or "fonds" includes everything 
that remains in a forest after it is completely clear cut : the unmerchant- 
able part of the stumps, roots, seed, humus, dead leaves, boundaries, 
roads, management divisions, drainage ditches, fire lines, forest houses, 
and all other betterments. Any study of soil values shows the advantage 
of reforesting cheap, so-called waste land; proof is abundant in French 
forest history — the Landes Sands (where values increased from 77 cents 
to as many dollars per acre), the uncultivated land in Champagne (which 
sold at $1.50 to $4.50 until planted to Austrian pine, when soil values 
increased to $10 or more, because it could produce $60 per acre from 
timber crops on a short rotation) ; similar advantages occurred to foresting 
cheap waste soils in the Central Plateau, Sologne, and elsewhere. But 
the State had to prove the way. Values are created; for before the for- 
estation the value of the soil is the local sale value, while after the pioneer 
has created the forest the value is based on what the soil can produce. It 
has been made revenue-producing, and the pioneer reaps the profit. 

A good illustration may be taken from the sale of stock. Let us as- 
sume that a wire company sells its stock at par, or $100 a share, and pays 
8 per cent (in accordance with 1920 rates). The concern prospers, earns 
and pays 12 per cent. Capital values have been created by its earning 
capacity and the stock sells at $150 a share instead of $100. The same 
increase in values occurs when barren soil is made to produce salable 
forests. 

* ficonomie Forestiere, Vol. I, p. 407. G. Huffel, 1904. Some writers claim 
a return of 6 to 7 per cent on timber investments in the Landes. See also Chapter 
VIII. 



FORESTRY AS AN INVESTMENT 



319 



French writers are apt to make excessive claims for forest investment 
returns, Risler/ director of the Institut Agronomique, claiming 5 to 10 
per cent for conifer plantations. For a pine plantation near Selongey 
(Cote d'Or) a return of 5.7 per cent was claimed ^ for a 30-year rotation 
on soil worth $7.72 an acre (100 francs per hectare). For a larch stand 
at Boisy near Geneva, Barbey claimed a return of 6.30 per cent. And it 
was said that "a private owner in the Pyrenees spent 10,000 francs on 
reforesting uncultivatible slopes worth 20,000; forty-five years later he 
left to his children a property worth 270,000 francs." Cases such as this 
are numerous where the owner reaped good returns by reforesting ground 
which he would have held anyway. 

The following returns are cited for plantations of broadleaf species, 
such as chestnut: 



Soil 


Soil cost 
per acre 


Cost of 

plantation 

per acre 


Return 

at end 

of rotation 


Rotation 


Rate of 
return, 
per cent 


Mediocre 


$3.86 

9.65 

19.. 30 


$7.72 

9.65 

11. 58 


$ 93 
193 

3S6 


35 
40 
50 


6.25 


Quite good 

Very favorable 


6 GO 

5.12 







For a fir stand in the Doubs on poor soil an average annual revenue of 
$8.96 per acre was secured (116 francs per hectare) but there are no exact 
data on the soil and growing stock values. Extraordinary yields are 
often cited for this region. Mangenot owned 9.1 acres which in 1868 
were estimated to have 1,510 trees or 667 cubic meters worth 9,265 francs. 
From 1868 to 1890 he cut 498 trees or 604 cubic meters and sold at 9,650 
francs; in 1890 he still had 1,600 trees estimated at 660 cubic meters and 
worth 9,165 francs. These exact data cited by Schaeffer ^ were equal to 
a net annual yield of about $9 per acre per year. The growing stock per 
acre was worth in round figures $199 and the soil at least $10, so this return 
of $9 per acre was only 4.3 per cent on the invested capital in a favorable 
forest region and with rapidly growing fir, spruce, and beech. But it 
should be noted that if this property had been held until 1918 and then 
clear cut down to a low diameter limit he would have doubled his money 
because of the high prices prevailing during 1918 and because the French 
currency had depreciated. But this introduces a new feature — a 
speculative one — which is present in all forest investments, namely, the 
sporadic increase in stumpage values with occasional very high levels. 

^ Placements Financiers en Bois. A. Jacquot. 

8 In the State forest of Levier the gross returns have been as high as $15.90 per acre, 
according to an engineer officer writing in American Forestry (p. 1537), 1919. 

9 Quelques Conseils aux Sylviciilteurs du Chablais. A. Schaeffer, Annecy, 1894. 



320 



PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 



Much of this increase may be due to the decrease in the purchasing power 
of money in addition to an increasing shortage of supply. In the State 
and communal forests under the inspector at Lorient (Morbihan) the 
average price per cubic meter for commercial sales ^° was as follows: 



Year 


Total sales, 
cubic meters 


Average price, francs 
per cubic meter 


Price 
per thousand feet 
board measure*^ 


1890 


12,749 


10.99 


$11.31 


1900 


16,932 


13.34 


13.73 


1910 


21,211 


14.78 


15.22 


1912 


41,338 


8.58 


8.83 


1913 


25,365 


11.90 


12.25 


1914 


18,586 


10.70 


11.02 


1915 


23,560 


14.28 


14.70 


1916 


25,822 


14.69 


14.86 


1917 


23,353 


23.16 


23.84 


1918 


25,032 


29.54 


30.41 



" This is only approximate since these prices were averages including cordwood. To 
reduce to dollars per thousand, the average price figure has been increased 33 1 per cent 
and four cubic meters counted to the thousand board feet. 

These original data show how the private owner could have taken ad- 
vantage of the prevailing high prices in 1917 and 1918 and could have 
profitably reduced his growing stock. They also show a steady increase in 
price since 1890, with the probability of much higher prices even after 
the abnormal war conditions are passed. Under such conditions the new 
owner, who has bought at the higher price level, may be influenced to cut 
and sell at the new price level. 

The forest investment, even after stumpage values increase, is much 
the same because the capital values of the land and growing stocks have 
increased in the same proportion; but it is during such times that the 
incentive to liquidate the investment is greatest. 

Money Yield from Public Fir Forests (Jura-Doubs). — It is interesting 
to compare the returns from the private forests just reviewed with those 
from public forests which are perhaps more conservatively managed. 
Table 25 which follows ^^ shows the basic data: 

Much can be learned from a study of the following table, for the past 
history of four important State and communal fir and spruce forests in 
the Jura Mountains can be accurately analyzed, (a) The average ro- 
tation is 150 years; in other words it takes 150 years to grow (Jura) fir and 
spruce 22.8 inches in diameter breast-high, (h) The average stand (mean 

10 The low price in 1912 was due to windfall; the low price in 1914 was due to the un- 
settled conditions prevalent during the initial period of the war. 

" From original data prepared by Inspecteur Devarennes. Such detailed data on 
managed French forests have never before been made public in the United States. 



MONEY YIELD FROM PUBLIC FIR FORESTS 



321 





^ 1 














o-l 




























































> ao 












«-^ 












" S 














a 


« 


ococ^iooo =o 


o 






a 


,_, 




TjH 


















3 














O 












o. 










II 




^ 




•^ 

































H 


Ci 














'"*'"""' ^ 


'^ 






a 
























■^ m 












Pi 




O :0 CO CO CO »o 


t^ 






(M 


C^ CO CO « to c^' 


ca 


^-1 




C^l 


■M MC^IMN (M 


^^ 


'.-1 
















w 












a 












O m 












"S i 








r-y 
























o >> 












m 
















^ 








,^J 


ij 


c c c d a 8 










S 


C 








2 2 2 2 2 & 


O 


















fe 






























g 














<D C 0) ffl O 5 

m Oj M CO w ^ 


o 










lO 














•"• 




















c) 


OOOCJO ""^ 


"^ r" 










GJ o flj o fl) -^ O 
















"S «> 


3 


2222S -S ^ 

aa a a a «Xi 






13 S 


a 






O g. 






O 






' o 


o 


C5 Oi 05 Oi ^ 






o o o o ., 






t. t. i- i- f 5 


3 








un 


«3«q2cCca = 






















O 














lO 


oo 








■* 








3 3 


■rl^ 




aj oT 












oo 


a)0»ooow:iai c 


3 


? ° 






rtOOCOt^cCCOcj <M 




Oh'^1 




■^ 


^i ^ 


<-5 


s 


n CO 


3 


CO _£; 
O 


. 


ca 




^ 


t^ 


^ 


si 












m 


40COCM CM »0 O 


CO 


o 


C^l 


^S 




" " 




" 


■X) 


°-B^ 














00 OO 00 05 05 ^- 


,_! 
































»— 1 




■—I 






>< 












bC 












a a. . 












15 S o 


,— t 


-hc<1COt)<iO 








i? 22; 
1^ 


























^~ 




., .1 








^ 




a 
3 
n 




1 


o" 




c 




tu 




J3 

3 


1 

Id ,1= 


g 


bl 

C 

13 






s 


O 

is 


.. s 

c3 n 


c 

a 
c 

1 ^ 

02 h^ 


"3 c3 


O 

Q 
C 

i 


1 
e2 



o 



te 



o 



o o £ g-| = 



Eg 



Ph S 



t- a; E 
oj Jh ^ 



53 



=- ffl £ 

Ch S 3 



2^S 

O 



■g ^ d E 



O ^ Cl 00 -^ CO 
CO CO lO CO lO lO 



O 00 
CO o 



O QO oo oo oo oo ^H ^H 

-H OOOOO O — I 






o oo CC 00 00 00 
Ci 00 CC GC oo oo 



C3 ^ 



t^ CO O CO o 



















,_, 


m 


CO 













OOOOO 



Ci O Oi (M O 



■^ ^ (M -: 



J Ol CO lO t^ 



O CO oo oo oo CC '-H »— < 

^ OOOOO '-' ■-' 



Ci Oi Ci C5 05 



CD CO CD O flO 

Ci Ol CS Ol CT5 
OO 00 CO OO 00 



3d 3 
S C3 .. o 
c— "^ 






322 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

per working group) over the whole area of 8,294 acres is over 31,000 board 
feet per acre. This was secured by natural regeneration, (c) The 
average working group is 1,037 acres (see p. 226). (rf) The gross yield 
per acre is $11.18 and the net yield about $10.68; this = for mountain 
land unquestionably unsuited to agriculture. The average price for 
saw timber prior to 1911 was $8.70 per thousand feet board measure on 
the stump. The local stumpage prices are now three to five times that 
figure, (e) These fir-spruce forests averaged 2.4 per cent in growth and 
the prescribed yield was 2.8 per cent of the growing stock • — a little more 
than the growth so as to reduce the quantity of overmature timber. (/) 
In 1908-1911 the capital invested was: Timber growing stock $4,063,902; 
empirical soil value (estimated), $153,108; total, $4,217,010. 

The gross annual revenue ^^ from timber sales was: $119,125; annual 
cost of administration and taxes, $4,147; annual net return, $114,978. 

This is about 2.7 per cent net on the invested capital ^^ for the period 
prior to 1908-1911, or perhaps 2| per cent on a conservative basis. It 
should be noted that this is less than secured by private owners who use 
shorter rotations and do not allow excess growing stock to accumulate. 

Drawbacks and Advantages to Forest Investments. — Many forest 
owners were almost ruined when the demand for charcoal and cordwood 
was largely reduced by coal production. It is only too common that 
much of the growing stock (conifers) is wiped out by fire, by disease or 
by insects. Considerable losses are frequent from windfall and even in 
France with a good market 20 to 50 per cent drops in stumpage values 
are common when considerable areas of windfall are suddenly placed on 
the market. Like farming land forest property is apt to deteriorate un- 
less the owner gives it his personal attention and exercises good technique. 

Some advantages of owning forest property as a long-term business 
investment in part compensate for its low financial returns as an invest- 
ment in permanent forest production are: (1) Stumpage prices are in- 
creasing, especially in countries where the virgin timber is being ex- 
hausted. After the virgin timber is cut then stumpage must be based 
on the cost of production or import, but even then prices will increase as 
the intensity of population increases. (2) With inflated or depreciated 
currency forest values increase and forest property can be sold at a profit. 
(3) In countries like the United States, where the essential technique of 
forest valuation is not widely known, the values placed on unmerchant- 
able young timber are usually below the market — hence private owners 

1- Compare with the figures for La Joux (2 per cent) given in the Appendix, p. 514. 

13 According to Huff el, Vol. II, Page VII of preface: "Exploitations . . . which are 
organized with a view to producing saw timber of large size always yield small returns; 
they hardly yield 1 or 2 per cent on the invested capital in the case of oak high forest with 
long rotations." 



GRAND DOMAINE OF ARC-ET-CHATEAUVILLAIN 323 

can often acquire cut-over land at very reasonable rates. (4) Where 
land values are generally low forest property often acquires, as the coun- 
try develops, a greatly enhanced sales price for other uses. 

Indirect Benefits. — In France it is especially true that the individual 
owns forests for indirect benefits as well as for an investment. The owner- 
ship of forests gives the landowner a certain prestige. The average coun- 
try estate or chateau loses half its value, or more, unless there is surround- 
ing forest. For the rich, the management of a forest property in France 
is an occupation which has advantages difficult to find elsewhere. Shoot- 
ing, a rich man's pastime, requires a forest. To-day every great family 
in France has its country estate with some forest, but within the past 30 
years, it should be again emphasized, there has been a decided tendency 
to dispose of large estates. The same is true in England. To-day M. 
Hirsch and his near relations own more forest and better-managed 
forest than any other family in France — notably the forests of Amboise 
(Indre-et-Loire) and Dreux (Eure-et-Loire). The forests of the Due de 
Penthi^vre in the Haute-Marne are being improved by A. Gazin, a not- 
able private forester. But these are exceptions. 

EXAMPLES OF THE BEST PRIVATE FORESTRY 

Three Notable Forests. — It was found exceedingly difficult to secure 
authoritative data on the management of private forest properties. 
Many owners did not possess accurate and complete records while others 
hesitated to give freely to a stranger more or less private information on 
costs, revenues, and methods of management. But French foresters 
were in accord that (a) the Arc-et-Chateauvillain Forest (Haute-Marne) 
(6) Amboise Forest (Indre-et-Loire) and (c) the Forest of X (Vosges) 
were three examples of the best private forestry in France and represen- 
tative of entirely different problems; (a) is chiefly a poor coppice-under- 
standards and mediocre high forest, (6) is a rich coppice-under-standards, 
and (c) is a rich stand of silver fir. Some day the writer hopes to secure 
private forest data on mountain forests, on Scotch pine, and on the Landes 
maritime pine. 

The Grand Domaine of Arc-et-Chateauvillain (Haute-Marne). — This 
forest property is being conservatively administered and the rotations 
lengthened ^* notwithstanding the small investment returns. The 
forest contains some 28,000 acres intact, and the Due de Penthievre is 
improving his property, under the able direction of M. Gazin ^^ by (1) 
reforesting, (2) by increasing the rotations, (3) by increasing the age 

" Un Grand Domaine Forestier, par A. Gazin. Besangon, 1910. 
1^ The total receipts and expenses for 1911 for the property managed by Gazin were as 
follows: 



324 



PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 



of the reserves in coppice-under-standards, (4) by developing a road 
system, (5) by securing a better range force tlirough increasing their 
pay. 

The property was bought in 1693 by Louis- Alexandre de Bourbon, 
Count of Toulouse; his son Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Penthievre, in- 
herited it. It was sequestered during the revolution but was restored to 



Receipts Francs 

Wood 119,900,00 

Windfall 1,647.10 

Rock, etc 1,161.01 

Grazing 76 . 00 

Indemnities 273.80 

Trespass 10.00 

Rights 700.00 

Hunting 32,000.00 

152.20 
155,920.11 

Farms (net) 49,400.00 



Totals 205,320.11 



Expenses 

Salaries 

Clothing 

Office 

Cost of making sales 

Road maintenance 

Plantations 

Pruning reserves 

Private logging 

Maintenance of houses. . . . 

Stamp (tax) 

Lawsuits 

Policing game rights 

Advertising, etc 

Horses and stable 

(19/20 to "forests") 

Insurance 

Pensions 

Taxes 

Stamps for pensions 

Totals 



Francs 

29,199.64 

1,140.90 

246.48 
4,920.90 
2,008 . 185 
1,049.585 

870.50 

168.19 

2,249.20 

6.20 



200.00 
707.592 

1,799.22 

22.60 

928.75 

.. 24,263.86 

.. 33.75 

• 69,804.952 

These figures simply serve to illustrate the low net returns for large forest estates in 
France. The percentage return on the investment cannot be computed but it is cer- 
tainly less than 2 per cent. The taxes eat up more than 10 per cent of the gross receipts. 

Gazin's budget is divided into six chapters followed by a general summary: (1) 
Forests; (2) houses and farms; (3) sawmills; (4) chateaux and parks; (5) hunting 
and fishing; (6) pensions; (7) recapitulation. The estimate signed December 18, 1912, 
and approved by the Due de Penthievre, is as follows: 





Receipts, 
francs 


Expenses, 

francs 


Taxes, 
francs 


1 

2 

3 


188,320 

3,753 

5,913 

1,500 

32,100 


67,405.40 

13,348.00 

55,500.00 

13,815.96 

1,000.00 

5,245.05 

3,051.09 


23,826.25 
1,018.00 


4 

5 


1,756.00 


6 




Miscellaneous 












231,586 


159,365.50 
Net, 72,220.50 


26,600.25 



The cost of administration totaled 3.40 francs per hectare per year; maintenance 
0.98; cost of making sales, 0.60; total of 4.98 francs, excluding taxes (34 cents per acre). 
The coppice in 1865 sold for 95,000 francs; in 1866, 152,000; in 1870, 120,000; and in 
1913, 16,000 francs, or only about 10 per cent gross receipts. This illustrates the loss to 
forest owners in France through the discovery and use of coal. 



GRAND DOMAINE OF ARC-ET-CHATEAUVILLAIN 325 

the daughter of the duke in 1814 who had married the Duke of Orleans. 
It was finally left to a nephew of King Louis Philippe, the Prince of 
Joinville. In 1852 it was again confiscated and sold to the Societe 
Passy but in 1873 the Prince of Joinville bought it back. At the death 
of this Prince on June 16, 1900, his son Pierre d'Orleans, the present 
Duke of Penthievre, inherited it. After such changes of ownership it 
is not surprising that the forest needed betterments. 

The total area of the property amounts to 27,866 acres divided as fol- 
lows: Forest (including 212 acres reforested), 26,309 acres; deer park 
around chateau, 608 acres; small park, 77 acres; chateau park, 178 acres; 
saw mill, etc., 15 acres; farms and meadows, 679 acres. It is situated 
in the department of the Haute-Marne almost at the center of the tri- 
angle formed by the towns Chaumont, Langres, and Chatillon-sur-Seine. 
The mean altitude is 1,148 feet, the lowest elevation 722 and the highest 
1,312 feet. The climate is severe and grapes cannot be cultivated ex- 
cept on the south exposure of walls. In certain parts of the forest frost 
occurs almost every month of the year. The variations in the climate 
and the permeability of the limestone soil, coupled with spring and fall 
frosts, makes the climate unfavorable for good growth. Considerable 
damage is also done by game with which the forest is stocked. The soil 
is generally dry and of mediocre quality. The species are principally 
oak, beech, and hornbeam. Hornbeam forms 63 per cent of the coppice 
stands, while in the coppice-under-standards there is almost twice as 
much oak among the standards as there is beech or hornbeam. There 
are some 33.5 miles of paved roads on the property maintained in good 
condition. An administrator (Gazin) has charge of the property and is 
resident at Arc-en-Barrois. The force includes seventeen men divided 
into three ranger districts, each guard's beat averaging about 1,850 acres. 
It is interesting that all employees are housed and furnished free heat, a 
uniform, pension, and medical care. The salary paid rangers and guards 
in 1912 was as follows: Rangers, first class S270; second class, $232; 
guards, exceptional class, S193; first class, S174; second class, $154; be- 
sides they are paid a bonus of 24 cents per day when they are engaged in 
manual labor. The pension begins when they are 55 years old and is 
one-sixtieth of the salary of each year of service. For example, if a man 
has worked 30 years with an average yearly salary of $200 he would re- 
tire when he was 55 with an annual pension of $100. It is now planned 
to regulate the salary of the guards according to the size of their families 
— the more children the larger salary. In addition the guards and 
rangers receive supplementary pay for killing destructive animals and a 
bonus for each head of game killed. The forest is well stocked with game 
and during a 10-year period the average annual kill was 10 stags, 30 deer, 
87 roebuck, 50 wild boar, and 14 hare. During 1908 the right to hunt 



326 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

was leased to a club at 23 cents per acre per year. This club charged its 
members the following premiums: Club members who shoot on this 
forest pay in addition (35 per cent of which goes to the rangers and beaters 
and 65 per cent to the guards) : Roe-buck 48 cents per head for the first 50 
killed; $1.93 for the following 150; $2.89 for the rest. Stags, $3.86 per 
head for the first 10; $5.79 for the 10 following; $7.72 for the third 10; 
$9.65 for the fourth 10; $11.58 for the fifth 10; $13.51 for the rest. Deer, 
$3.86 per head. In addition the club paid the following rewards for 
killing beasts of prey: Fox, $1.16; badgers, $1.35; wild cats, $2.90; martins 
and pole cats, $1.16; domestic cats caught in the forest, 58 cents; martins, 
fur species, $3.86; weasels, 58 cents; ermine, 97 cents; buzzards, 19 cents. 
The pelts were reserved for the use of the club. For the discovery of 
poachers the club paid $7.72 for those caught during the day; $15.44 for 
poachers caught during the night, and $1.93 for dogs caught in the 
forest. 

The forest yields truffles in considerable quantity. Practically all 
sawlog material is exported and firewood in small amounts is used 
locally. Mine props are exported to the northern part of France and 
Belgium, the wood and charcoal to Paris. The average prices secured 
are as follows: Oak, first quality (20 inches in diameter and better), 
$6.76 per cubic meter in the log; second quality (12 inches to 19 inches 
in diameter), $4.83; third quality (8 to 11 inches in diameter), $2.32. 
Beech logs bring about $2.90 per cubic meter on the average; mine props, 
53 cents per stere (0.277 cord); firewood, 48 cents per stere; and charcoal 
made of branch wood, 5 cents. ^^ 

Management. — The system of coppice-under-standards is applied 
to the nineteen working groups of the forest and the rotation averages from 
25 to 30 years. The rotation has been lengthened, however, and owing to 
the small value of fuel and the increasing value of sawlogs, is now 27 to 
32 years. In the past, with the rotation 25 to 30 years and because the 
reserves were insufficient, the yield averaged 0.32 cubic meters of sawlogs 
per acre and 1 cubic meter of firewood. The price of charcoal has dropped 
from 58 cents to 5 cents per stere on the stump (3.6 steres to a cord). 
The objection to converting this coppice-under-standards to high forest 
is that it would take too long and cost the owner too much. There is so 
much game in this forest that the conversion would be difficult, especially 
if fir were planted. The number of reserves is to be increased to such an 
extent, however, that the coppice-under-standards will resemble an 
open high forest. There are also objections to lengthening the rotation: 
(1) The necessary decrease in the proportion of oak; (2) the impossibility 
of securing the full value of the reserves which become ripe, decayed, or 
overmature; (3) the decrease in the growth of the reserves, since the 
" These prices were prior to 1912. 



FOREST OF AMBOISE 327 

greatest development comes during the 10 years following the cutting 
of the coppice. This last may be in part compensated for by the increase 
in value of the coppice felling because of the increasing price for large 
mine props. 

Growth. — It is the policy to keep an accurate record of the growth of 
the reserves in the coppice-under-standards. All these reserves (first- 
class standards) are numbered and measured at the time of the coppice 
fellings and at all subsequent stocktakings. According to data secured 
the oak takes 20 years to grow from one 2-inch class into another and 
15 years for the beech; on an average the growth for the oak is 2.5 per 
cent and for the beech 3.5 per cent. According to the marking made on 
about 1.977 acres in 1907-1908, 23.6 cubic meters were left and 18.4 cubic 
meters of reserves cut. 

Yield. — For the years 1907-1908 (976 acres were cut over each year) 
the final yield from the reserves was 5.2 cubic meters of sawlogs per acre 
and 6.8 cubic meters of fuel — 12 in all, while the coppice yielded a cut 
of 22 cubic meters of fuel, charcoal, and mine props. For the 2 years 
the final yield was $22.13 per acre for the high forest and $7.34 for the 
coppice, an average of $1.91 per cubic meter for the high forest systems, 
branches included, and but 33 cents per cubic meter for the coppice. This 
illustrates very vividly the great advantage of growing saw timber instead 
of cordwood. The net yield on the investment is probably 1.5 to 2.0 per cent. 

Forestation. — The first plantations date from 1838 to 1848, when the 
Vendue and Essarts farms were forested with Scotch pine and oak, with 
avenues of spruce and pine along the boundaries. This planting has been 
very profitable. Some of the spruce is now more than 27 inches in 
diameter and is growing rapidly. Planting in the blanks has, on the 
whole, given excellent results. The popular species used lately, planted 
in groups of about 2h acres according to the nature of the soil, are 
spruce, Scotch pine, Corsican pine, Austrian pine, larch, and beech. 
Some fir, as well as white pine, Douglas fir, and Japanese larch has been 
planted. Since the soil is limestone it is likely that this last species will 
give mediocre results. 

The House of Orleans deserves a great deal of credit for its conservative 
treatment of this forest, and, as Broilliard has said, "The owner who 
conserves his forest is continually working for the country; he is essentially 
a benefactor. " 

Forest of Amboise (Indre-et- Loire). — The forest of Amboise was 
bought from the Emperor of Bulgaria by M. Hirsch,i^ then an inspector in 

1^ Through the courtesy of M. Hirsch the writer obtained access to his private forest 
records and was enabled to visit the forest with the owner. Unfortunately much of the 
best saw timber and cordwood was requisitioned and cut by the A. E. F. during the 
Great War. 



328 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

the Waters and Forests Service, stationed at Paris. The domain formed 
part of the royal forests until 1761, when it was given to the Duke of 
Choiseul by Louis XV; in 1784 it was purchased by the Duke of Pen- 
thievre. After suffering confiscation at the French Revolution it be- 
came the property of Louis XVIII, who gave it to the Duchess of Orleans, 
who later became Queen Marie Amelie. When Louis Philippe divided his 
possessions the forest of Amboise fell to Princess Louise, the Queen of 
Belgium. After the revolution of 1848 some 4,942 acres were con- 
fiscated and sold so that at the restoration in 1872 but 10,378 acres 
remained. In 1874 the remnant was ceded to the Princess Clementine 
and the Duke of Wartenberg; it finally was acquired by the Prince of 
Bulgaria and the Duke of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha, 

The forest is situated 15 miles east of Tours, between the Cher and the 
Loire rivers. The historic town' of Amboise is directly north and Blere 
is to the south. The forest contains 10,691 acres and varies from 0.62 
to 3 miles in width and is 10 miles long. The soil is a deep clay, often 
sandy in character, quite compact, and yet the roots penetrate quite 
easily. Usually there is a good humus. The climate is mild in winter 
and quite hot in summer; the snow remains only a few days at a time. 
The annual rainfall varies from 20 to 24 inches. The stand is almost pure 
oak, half sessile and half pedunculate, with scattering beech, hornbeam, 
birch, chestnut, acacia, and aspen, with Scotch pine and maritime pine 
which have been introduced artificially. The regeneration of the oak is 
very easy because of its abundant seed crops; its quality is first class. 
The conifers have not as yet proved especially successful. There are no 
rights or servitudes, the boundaries are well established, and a fairly 
complete system of main and secondary roads already exists. The local 
force in 1912 comprised a ranger ($232), two head guards ($174), and six 
guards and one road guard ($135 each). The force is lodged and has the 
privilege of a 25-acre garden, 2h cords of fuel, and 100 fagot bundles per 
year. 

Treatment. — The forest is divided into seventeen working groups 
varying in size from 376 to 791 acres, with the exception of the section, 
"Les Bertherelles " which has only 113 acres. Two working groups, 
903 acres, have not been regularly cut since 1883, but 153 acres (Scotch 
pine) were burned over in 1893; with the exception of 113 acres under 
high forest the remainder is under compound coppice. There are no 
blanks of any size and the whole forest is in good condition. The Waters 
and Forests Service, which administered the forest from 1851 to 1873, 
began a conversion to high forest and this accounts for the high forest on 
113 acres. The present owner has accordingly changed three working 
groups with 20-year rotations to two working groups with 30-year rota- 
tions. In addition he has an extra working group for remnants. He 



FOREST OF AMBOISE 



329 



will gradually realize on the bit of high forest and turn it into coppice- 
under-standards.^^ 

Products. — The products are logs and firewood. The coppice yields 
charcoal, fagots, fagot bundles, and bark; the high forests yield sawlogs 
and additional fuel. 

The shooting rents for $1,737 per year and includes deer, wild boar, 
hare, and pheasants. The fishing is worth $193 a year with an additional 
$135 average from special sales of fish. 

The average revenue for the years 1897 to 1908 was: Wood, $24,358; 
shooting, fishing, etc., $2,818, or a total of $27,175; but from this must be 
deducted $9,540 for taxes, administration, and patrol, leaving a net 
revenue of only $17,636. 

An average year (1906) showed the following detailed receipts and 
expenses : 

RECEIPTS 

Sales of wood $25,057 19 

Hunting $1737 . 00 1 



Rents 

Withes 

Pruning 

Wood over quarries . . 

Grass 

Stone 

Seed 

Cutting penalties 

Other penalties 

Miscellaneous receipts . 
Trespass damages . 



28.95. 
364.45' 

53.90 
156.49 

64.06' 
120.38 

52.59 



1,765 . 95 



574.84 



237.03 

22.58 

89.17 

6.72 

0.60 



Total $27,754.08 



EXPENSES 

Taxes of all kinds 

Force salary $3094 .27 1 

Lodging 266.50 

Bureau 52 . 15 | ' ' 

Doctor, etc 106 . 97 J 

Cost of advertising sales. . . . 
Maintenance roads. ....... 

Houses 

Pruning reserves 

Park and Chateau 

Trimming along roads 

Insurance 

Trespass cost 

Reforestation 

Construction of three stalls. 

Special construction 

Extra guard 

Unforeseen expenses , 

Total 

Revenue (net) 

Gross revenue 



1020.76 

295 . 14 

145.21 

54.29 

20.99 



12.16 

25.52 

9.65 

161.73 



$ 3,779.53 

3,519.89 

965.48 

1,536.39 

14.80 
0.48 

209.06 

109.70 

$10,135.33 

17,531.88 



$27,667.21" 

"These totals did not balance with the gross receipts in the original tables. 

18 Hirsch believes in accurate valuation. He marks three rotation standards with 
three red circles and with serial number at d. b. h., 2R standards with two red circles and 
serial number, wliile IR standard (baliveau) with red circle but no number at all. This 
work costs only $80 a year. 



330 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

Growth. — From the measurement of selected plots over a period 
of 14 years it appears "that the average annual growth on the circum- 
ference is 0.0153 per tree and that the volume increases each year 
by 0.0233." These figures apply to the trees 15 inches and over in 
diameter. There are no figures for trees less than this but the growth 
is estimated at 3 per cent. For the conifers the growth per cent was 
fixed at 0.025. The amount to cut each year is therefore obtained by 
multiplying the volume in each diameter class (above or below 15 inches 
in diameter) by the per cents given above. The coppice is worked by 
area. 

For each of the seventeen groups is given a digest of the growing stock 
divided into coppice cuttings. For example : for the third working group 
Chanteloup, 754 acres, 24 coupes; Coupe No. 1, area 47 acres; age of 
coppice end of 1907, 19 years; volume of oak (reserves), under 15 inches, 
96.47; over 15 inches, 181.62 cubic meters; volume of conifers, 274.30. 
The total volumes are then footed and the following calculations made: 
growth of the oak, below 15 inches, 5,546 cubic meters X 0.03 = 166.38; 
above 15 inches, 2,439 cubic meters X 0.023 = 56.97; total, 223.35. 
Growth of the pine, below 15 inches, 2,300 cubic meters X 0.025 = 57.5. 

This growth would sell as follows: 223 cubic meters at $6, $1,291; 
branches, 223 steres at 77 cents, $172; pine, 86 steres at 97 cents, $93; 
total $1,546. $1,546 capitalized at 4 per cent equals $38,600. 

"The product of the (coppice) felling area when ripe is estimated at 
$45 per acre. The net value per acre of the soil and of the coppice 
amounts then to .$30. This amount capitalized at 4 per cent represents 
a value of $23,558 for the whole working group." A resume of all the 
working groups is shown in Table 26 on opposite page. 

The "Domain of Rouillardiere," added to the forest of Amboise in 
1885, comprises 126 acres. It consists of a magnificent coppice and 
compound coppice. As a final valuation the forest is put at: 

Amboise $893,937.40 

Rouillardiere 7,720.00 

Jameau ponds 3,377 . 50 

Miscellaneous 285 . 64 

$905,320.54 

The following deductions can be drawn from the foregoing 
data: 

(1) The net income for 1906 was $10,135.34 on a capitalization of 
$905,320.54. This shows a net yield of only 1.9 per cent, but it should 
be recalled that the forest is being built up by the reservation of large 
numbers of standards. Hence the real profit is 1.9 per cent plus the 



FOREST OF AMBOISE 
TABLE 26. — VOLUME OF OAIC IN 1907 



331 



No. 


Area, 
acres 


Below 15 
inches 


Above 1.5 
inches 


Reserves 


Values, 

soil, 
coppice 


Total in 
even figures 


1 


430 


481.89 


«5,918.92 
298.32 


$8,801 


$7,739 


$16,540 


2 


473 


574.40 


« 6,706.27 
311.50 


9,968 


9,013 


18,981 


3 


779 


5,546.29 


2,438.98 
« 1,463.09 


38,600 


23,559 


62,159 


4 


753 


3,412.76 


2,806.18 


26,731 


13,351 


40,082 


5 


588 


2,555.78 


"651.56 














2,344.29 


21,906 


14,157 


36,063 








« 287. 10 








6 


668 


4,807.88 


4,013.39 
« 450.34 


38,957 


15,224 


54,181 


7 


667 


3,988.88 


4,580.86 


37,297 


15,694 


52,991 


8 


. 763 


4,786.16 


« 577.46 














4,378.74 


40,530 


18,400 


58,930 


9 


547 


5,530.93 


5,322.78 


47,285 


14,309 


61,594 


10 


113 


4,890.09 


1,506.57 


25,573 


1,737 


27,310 


11 


790 


6,900.33 


8,116.53 


64,462 


22,633 


89,095 


12 


710 


8,898.92 


9,331.18 


78,744 


16,630 


95,374 


13 


449 


4,680.09 


3,738.60 


37,239 


13,390 


50,629 


14 


377 


2,509.01 


2,212.57 














« 63.72 


20,670 


9,026 


29,696 


15 


636 


5,087.20 


4,061.81 


40,356 


17,854 


58,210 


16 


640 


5,483.62 


3,781.61 
« 79 . 14 


41,177 


14,508 


55,685 


17 


485 


3,278.76 


2,154.95 
° 278.02 


24,279 


9,223 


33,502 


18 


579 


6,106.56 


3,074.43 


41,668 


13,420 


55,088 




Total 










$894,110 

















" Conifers. 

average yearly value of the increase in growing stock.^^ The owner 
estimated his real return at 4 per cent. 

(2) In 1906 the expenses (cost of operation) were 37 per cent and 
the taxes 13 per cent of the gross revenue; the taxes were 0.14 of 1 per 
cent of the appraised book value. 

(3) It is of interest to note the receipts for hunting, rents, withes, 
pruning, wood cleared at quarries, grass, stone, seed cutting penalties, 
miscellaneous receipts, and trespass were about one-ninth the receipts 
from timber and coppice sales. 

" The A. E. F. purchased $231,600 (1,200,000 francs) worth of coppice and timber 
(18,760 cubic meters and 26,094 steres) from this forest during 1918-1919; the damages 
for faulty cutting were $1,930. In addition these high sales values will be partly bal- 
anced by largely increased working costs for a number of years. The cut in 1909 was 
4,489 cubic meters and 3,321 steres; 1910, 4,204 cubic meters and 2,697 steres; 1911, 
2,224 cubic meters and 2,887 steres. Thus the A. E. F. cut about 5 years of timber crops 
and 9 years of cord wood. This unquestionably damaged the forest from the standpoint 
of permanent management. 



332 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

(4) To calculate the yield, rule-of-thumb growth per cent figures 
were multiplied by the growing stock to obtain the yield of timber; for 
the coppice an average per acre yield figure is simply estimated as a 
result of past averages. 

A Fir Forest (Vosges). — Perhaps the most interesting private fir 
forest in France, and certainly the best managed, is the Forest of X, 
jointly owned by ten distinguished French foresters. Suffice it to say 
that Gazin, manager for the Due de Penthievre forest properties, and 
Schaeffer, conservateur des Eaux et Forets, are two of the ten owners. 

The forest comprises 155 acres and is situated at an altitude of from 
1,540 to 2,100 feet in the lower Vosges Mountains on rather rocky sandy 
loam (gres vosien). The principal stand is silver fir, with some Scotch 
pine in mixture, and perhaps 1 per cent of beech. The property was 
purchased in 1906 for $31,845, but really cost net only $19,300 because 
the overmature timber was at once sold for $12,545. The appraised 
hook value is, however, $23,160 instead of $19,300 because the purchase 
price was less than the full value. The stumpage values were 15 francs 
per cubic meter (about $10.50 per thousand feet board measure) in 1906, 
and 17 to 18 francs, or 15 to 20 per cent more, in 1913. 

The stand is cut over every 5 years and is completely calipered. The 
marking is under the personal supervision of one of the ten owners who 
receives an allowance of $9.65 for his work as director of marking, but 
each owner manages his one-tenth of the forest. Thus far the dividends 
have been 3 per cent per year. They are now limited to 4 per cent until 
the original growing stock, as it stood after the removal of the over- 
matured timber, has been increased 33 per cent by saving some of the 
growth each year. Then and then only it is proposed to increase the 
dividends to 6 per cent. The cost of the original working plan was 
$86.85 and the annual expenses for marking, taxes, etc., have been 
$185.63. The annual taxes were $12.74 or 8 cents per acre. The 
average annual cut was 833 cubic meters (about 222,000 feet board 
measure or 1.4 thousand feet per acre per year). 

The aim of management is to get the best financial returns, and the 
group selection system is applied with cleanings, freeings, and thinnings 
every 5 years. The yield is regulated by the Gurnaud method. With 
stocktaking every 5 years as exact data are secured on growth as if the 
forest were a sample plot. Thus far the forest has netted 3.25 per cent 
on the investment (3 per cent dividend and 0.14 of 1 per cent as surplus 
bank balance) hut in addition the volume on the ground has increased 
2,390 cubic meters,2o worth in 1912 $8,072 (41,825 francs). Thus the 
actual revenue has been 3| per cent plus an annual increase in capital 
of $807, or 3.9 per cent on the book value without compound interest or 

20 The figures in proof of this are as follows: 



CONCLUSIONS 



333 



deducting any share of annual expense which the marketing of this 
excess reserve might have entailed. 

It is safe to say that thus far the real annual revenue has been close 
to 7 per cent. But the forester must realize that there may be setbacks 
due to windfall, disease, and unforeseen acts of Providence, so the board 
of control set 6 per cent as their maximum interest goal. Anything 
above this will at present be held as a reserve. 

Conclusions. — Writing in 1910, Broilliard, perhaps the most em- 
inent French forester of our times, said: "Bad at business and poor 
at manufacturing, the State is, nevertheless, the best forest owner, 
able to assure good treatment to timber of all species . . . ," and he 
argued for more State forest acquisition and especially the purchase 
of forests in being rather than land that requires forestation. This is 
certainly a good policy for the United States to follow, because a study 
of the private forests of France leads us to the following conclusions, 
which, at least, have a bearing on what the United States should do: 

(1) Private forests, purely as permanent investments, would be largely 





Acres 


October, 1892 


October 31, 1912 


Serial number 


Cubic meters, 
total 


Cubic 
meters 
per acre 


Cubic meters, 
total 


Cubic 
meters 
per acre 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


24.4 
7.8 
21.6 
7.2 
15.0 
12.9 
18.0 
19.8 
17.1 
10.9 


1,673 

735 

1,529 

606 

1,175 

1,063 

1,606 

2,166 

1,293 

631 


68.0 
92.4 
70.0 
83.6 

77.2 
81.6 
88.4 
108.0 
74.8 
57.4 


2,695 

926 

2,214 

556 

826 

535 

1,819 

2,473 

1,864 

959 


109.4 

115.4 

100.1 

76.4 

53.6 

40.8 

100.0 

122.8 

106.4 

88.0 


Totals 


154.7 


12,477 




14,867 








Averages 







80.0 




94.8 









Thus the stand has increased 38 cubic meters per hectare or 15 per cent plus per acre. 
The average growth per cent for this thrifty fir stand has been 6. In marking the 
following rule has been adopted: "In each age class it seems necessary to cut at least 10 
per cent of the stand and imprudent to cut more than 25 per cent. The amount to be 
marked from the (a) small (b) average, and (c) large diameter classes is always de- 
cided before the marking begins. Nothing has ever been published on this forest of X 
because the owners prefer to keep the French tax assessors ignorant of the exact returns, 
since they feel that taxation should not be increased simply because of their good man- 
agement. For the forest student this is perhaps the most valuable demonstration 
forest in France. 



334 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE 

done away with unless there were laws against deforestation, or unless 
the State subsidized forest property. 

(2) The kind of forestry on private land that is forced by mandatory 
legislation will not result in real timber production; ^^ it will entail a 
waste in the use of forest soils. 

(3) Private forests maintained solely for revenue cannot afford to 
produce the high-grade timber always required by certain industries. 

(4) The private forests of France rarely yield over 4 per cent as a 
permanent investment in timber production on the capitalized value of 
the soil and growing stock. Exceptions occur when cheap soil, such as 
sand wastes, can be cheaply stocked and where in addition taxes may 
be reduced by State laws and the owner subsidized. But the risk is 
apt to be correspondingly greater. 

(5) The risk from windfall, insects, fungus, fire, and changes in the 
wood market is considerable. An investment in a private forest cannot 
be considered as safe as many bonds that now yield 7 per cent or more 
semi-annually. 

(6) During eras of high prices the private forest capital or growing 
stock is usually greatly reduced because of the opportunities to realize 
at a profit. This puts a premium on public ownership because the State 
can then supply the demand for raw material from its reserves. 

(7) The best managed private forests are usually owned by the rich 
or by the nobles and are not maintained alone for the money they return, 
but for the dignity, pleasure, or indirect benefits which they yield. The 
farm woodlot is an indispensable part of a nation's economic forest 
wealth, and in France has been wretchedly managed through lack of 
free technical advice and propaganda. The small owner is apt to use 
too short rotations and to allow his forest to depreciate in value and 
quality. 

(8) The ownership by the public should be increased by purchase 
from owners who are no longer able to maintain their forests properly, 
and in addition the private owner should be assisted financially and 
technically and should be given adequate protection from trespass and 
fire. 

(9) Most of the high-investment returns from forest properties are 
really due to speculative increases in local values ; the advantage of these 
high prices largely disappears when the property is held as a permanent 
investment because the soil values and growing stock values increase 
proportionately. The high profits from buying and then selling at higher 
prices should not be confused with the business of permanent forest 
production. 

21 The timber-culture act in the United States certainly never resulted in forests. 



CONCLUSIONS 335 

It must therefore be concluded that forestry is a poor investment for 
an individual, but an exceedingly good one for the nation, because the 
nation can take part of its revenue in indirect benefits.^^ Under a democ- 
racy it seems better for the State to acquire cut-over or virgin forest soils 
rather than to try to force the private owner to practice the unprofitable 
business of 'permanent forest 'production if he holds his forest property 
solely for its financial returns. But while the temporary owner is realizing 
on his investment it is certainly incumbent upon the State to require 
that the forest be maintained in a condition that will not menace the lives 
and property of others. But professional foresters should avoid vague 
generalities; the time has come for details about the forest and about 
the forest as an investment. Be frank with the private owner and tell 
him what to expect. 

22 A water compan}' in the United States that owns its watersheds would be foolhardy 
if it did not practice forestry. Paper companies and other permanent corporations, 
with heavy investments in machinery, must do all they can to perpetuate their timber 
supply. But it is yet to be proved whether they would not be better off buying stumpage 
from the State rather than owning all their own timber supply. Recent increases in 
pulp stumpage may tend to confuse the issue, namely, permanent forest production, as 
an investment. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

By W. B. Gkeelet 
Formerly Lieut.-Col. 20th Engineers, A. E. F. 

Timber in Modern Warfare (p. 336). The Wood Used by Two Million American 
Soldiers, A War of Transportation, Forest Preparedness in France. 

The Organization of Forest Engineers (p. 338). American Woodsmen Called to 
the Colors, The Man Behind the Sawmills, A Division of Forestry Troops. 

The Forestry Section of the Expeditionary Force (p. 340). Its Military Or- 
ganization, Geographical Distribution of Forestry Operations, District Managers, The 
Headquarters Staff — Equipping the Sawmills, Strategy in Military Lumbering, Sales 
and Traffic Department, The Timberland Department. 

Sawmills and Logging Equipment (p. 343). Early Makeshifts, The Heavy Saw- 
mill, The Light Sawmill, The Flying Sawmill, Heavy and Light Artillery in Timber War- 
fare, The Transport Problem, Value of French Highways, Motor Trucks and Caterpil- 
lars, Logging Railways. 

The Production of Fuel Wood (p. 347). An Enormous Problem in Itself, Fuel 
Wood Cut by the Forest Engineers, The Special Fuel Supply Service. 

What the Forest Engineers Accomplished (p. 348). The Beginning and the End, 
The Spirit of the Forestry Troops, Winning the War with Lumber. 

Cooperation WITH the Forest Agencies of France (p. 351). French Organiza- 
tion of Timber Supplies for the War, Early Negotiations with the French Government, 
The Interallied Timber Committee, Forest Acquisition in the War Zone, Scouting France 
for Timber, Cutting Requirements Imposed by the French, Restrictions Upon the 
Amount of Timber Cut, Meeting French Foresters on Their Own Ground, The French 
View of American Operations, French Difficulties in Supplying American Require- 
ments, Effectiveness of French Cooperation. 

Forest Troops Loaned to French and British Armies (p. 357). 

What the American Woodsmen Learned in France (p. 358). 

The War a Vindication of French Forestry (p. 358). 

Timber in Modern Warfare, — That timber is an essential munition 
of war is demonstrated forcibly by the enormous quantities of wood which 
were required by the allied armies in almost every phase of military 
operations in France. The great military bases behind the lines con- 
sumed lumber in vast amounts for camps, hospitals, shops, and ware- 
houses. No advance could be undertaken without large suppHes of 
railroad ties for extending railheads into conquered territory, of bridge 
timbers and road plank for throwing forward quickly built roads over 
streams and shell-torn ground, and of lumber, logs, and pickets for con- 
structing fortifications. 

336 



FOREST PREPAREDNESS IN FRANCE 337 

The Wood Used by Two Million American Soldiers. — To establish the 
American Army as a fighting unit in France and carry its operations to the 
end of the war required 450,000,000 board feet of round or manufactured 
timber and 650,000 cords of fuel wood. This represented a ton and a half 
of wood for every American soldier sent overseas. Much of this material 
was, of course, used in the construction of depot and supply facilities 
and at base camps behind the fighting zone. But even after such 
structures had been largely completed, the two million American troops 
in France, fighting under the conditions which existed from the beginning 
of the St. Mihiel offensive, required some 70,000,000 board feet monthly 
of all classes of timber except fuel wood. 

Thirty-eight and one-half per cent of this vast quantity of timber was 
required in the form of lumber in small dimensions for the construction 
of barracks, hospitals, and warehouses and of rough field shelters and 
fortifications; 27 per cent was fuel wood; railroad ties came third, with 
13^ per cent; about 9 per cent had to be furnished in large timbers for 
building docks, barges, trestles, and bridges. The most difficult require- 
ment to fill was the need for 39,000 piles, in lengths up to 100 feet, used 
chiefly in the docks built by American engineers at various French ports. 
Six per cent of the total covered the demands for telephone and telegraph 
poles, wire entanglement stakes, and pickets for supporting camouflage 
nets. 

A War of Transportation. — In the last analysis, the war of 1917 was a 
war of transportation. Nothing illustrates this fact better than the means 
which had to be employed to obtain the enormous quantities of wood 
required by the armies in the field and get them to the points of use. 
Owing to the scarcity of ships, less than 1 per cent of the timber used by 
the American forces in France was forwarded from the United States. 
The difficulties in transporting such bulky material from neutral countries 
like Norway and Switzerland were only slightly less serious. France 
herself was short of manufactured products. Hence over 75 per cent 
of the timber required by the American Army had to be cut from French 
forests by our own engineer troops. 

Forest Preparedness in France. — That France was able +o supply 
these vast demands was a factor in national preparedness of the utmost 
importance to the allied forces, particularly to the American Army, 
which was compelled to operate far from home. If France had set 
about deliberately, 60 years ago, to supply the armies of the allied 
nations with timber during the great war, she could hardly have built 
up her forest resources more effectively than her thrift and foresight had 
actually done. France contained probably 150 billion board feet of 
merchantable tim]:)er at the outbreak of the war. The character and 
distribution of her forests were almost ideal for the military requirements 



338 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

which actually developed. The region immediately behind and adjoining 
the American sector of the front was well forested. The fir and spruce 
forests of the Vosges and Jura Mountains furnished ideal timber for the 
manufacture of construction lumber as well as the large timbers and long 
piling which proved to be a vital necessity. Even lumbermen from 
northwestern America took off their hats to some of these upland stands 
of silver fir. In the Besangon District, the American Engineers cut as 
much as 65,000 board feet of saw timber to the acre. The largest tree 
felled, a silver fir, had a diameter of 56 inches and contained 5,530 board 
feet. The logs cut in these softwood forests of the Eastern Mountains 
averaged 6| per thousand feet. The Vosges afforded operations of 
special military value because they were within a stone's throw of the 
American First and Second Armies and of the supply facilities just 
behind them. 

A second important forest belt was traversed by the main line of 
communications of the American Army, through the Loire River Valley 
and across the headwaters of the Seine and Marne. This is chiefly an 
agricultural region, but, as in most of France, one is seldom out of sight 
of patches of woods. Its oak forests were an unfailing supply of railroad 
ties, road plank, and large timbers for the construction of docks and 
bridges. Some of its 200 or 240 year old oak timber attains fine dimen- 
sions. A 60 inch log, the largest found in France, was cut from an oak 
tree near Dijon. At the large operations near ficlaron the oak logs 
averaged ten to the thousand board feet. At other hardwood camps 
the average was fifteen or seventeen. This region also, with its exten- 
sive areas of hardwood coppice, seemed almost to have been designed in 
advance as the principal source of fuel for the American troops. In its 
many plantations of Scotch pine it also furnished ready to hand material 
suitable for the millions of wire entanglement stakes and small poles 
required in modern warfare. A third important forest region, the 
pineries of southwestern France, afforded another large supply of rail- 
road ties, lumber, and piling which proved to be well located for our 
great cargo ports at Bordeaux and other large American installations. 
The pitch pine of this region resembles the shortleaf pine of the Southern 
States. At the better sets it averaged seventeen and one-half logs per 
thousand board feet and yielded a fair proportion of 50 and 60 foot piles. 
For a war in which timber played such a striking part, France was indeed 
well prepared. 

THE ORGANIZATION OF FOREST ENGINEERS 

American Woodsmen Called to the Colors. — Soon after the advance 
guard of the American Expeditionary Force landed in France it was 



THE MEN BEHIND THE SAWMILLS 339 

foreseen that to supply our troops with timber from French forests would 
require a special organization of engineers experienced and equipped for 
this work. In fact one of the first requests for help from the United 
States by both our French and British Allies was for regiments of trained 
lumbermen. The organization of lumberjack units had actually been 
begun in May, 1917, and was continued until March, 1918. By May, 
1918, forty-eight companies of forest and road engineers, each 250 men 
strong, had been sent to France. The core of a 49th Company was 
obtained subsequently from the New England Sawmill Units, a private 
organization which was sent to Old England in the early summer of 
1917 to cut lumber for the British Government. These troops repre- 
sented every State in the Union. Practically every forestry agency in 
the country, together with many lumlier companies and associations, 
helped in obtaining the right type of men. The road engineers of the 
United States took hold of the organization of the twelve companies of 
troops designed for road construction in a similar spirit. The lumber 
units were officered largely by picked men of experience in the forest 
industries of America, and the road units by road and construction 
engineers of exceptional technical ability. 

The Men Behind the Sawmills. ■ — The earlier units were made up 
entirely from volunteer enlistments. The later units contained a large 
proportion of men from the draft, selected for forestry work mainly on 
the basis of their former occupations, together with many volunteers 
beyond the draft age from among the experienced loggers and sawmill 
mechanics of the country. But there was no distinction between vol- 
unteer or drafted soldiers among the American forest engineers in France. 
These men represented the best of their hardy and resourceful profession 
in the United States. They came from her forests and sawmills, trained 
in her woodcraft, with all of the physical vigor, the adaptability to life 
in the open, and the rough and ready mechanical skill of the American 
woodsman. 

Special credit is due to the officers and men of the three battalions, 
the 41st, 42d, and 43d Engineers, which were organized and equipped 
for road construction work in connection with forestry operations. 
They came to France keen to take up this task for which they too had 
been especially fitted by training and experience. But the necessities 
of war dictated otherwise. They landed in France to find the under- 
manned Forestry Section struggling to keep up with the timber needs 
of an army already twice the size of that originally intended. It was 
necessary for these road builders to turn lumberjacks themselves, cutting 
fuel wood, piling, or entanglement stakes as occasion demanded and 
manning the new sawmills which were installed as fast as they arrived 
from the United States. The road companies took hold of this work, 



340 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

to which most of them were unaccustomed, with splendid spirit and in 
the end some of their mill crews made off with the laurels of certain pure 
lumberjack units, in the records of the operations for production. 

To meet the growing requirements of the American Army, Engineer 
Service battalions were rapidly added to the forestry and road troops 
during the summer and fall of 1918. At the end of hostilities, thirty-six 
Service Companies were working with the 20th Engineers. The first 
four of them were white troops, organized as the 503d Engineers. They 
contained a large proportion of railroad men and other skilled workers 
and were soon in the mills and woods and on railroad jobs, on all fours 
with the forestry troops. Upon the other Service Companies, com- 
posed of colored troops, fell the brunt of cutting the fuel wood which the 
quartermaster was calling for by the hundreds of thousands of cords. 
But several sawmill crews composed largely or entirely of black soldiers 
made exceedingly creditable records. 

A Division of Forestry Troops. — Bj^ the date of the armistice the 
Forestry Section numbered 12,000 engineer troops, organized in the 
fourteen Battalions of the 20th Engineers, and 9,000 service troops. 
The Section operated from eighty to ninety sawmills during the last 
two months of the war and employed some 3,600 draft horses and mules. 
In addition to this vast organization about 10,000 service troops from 
the Quartermaster Corps were engaged in cutting fuel wood under the 
direction of forest engineer officers. 

THE FORESTRY SECTION OF THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE 

Its Military Organization. — The Forestry Section grew with the size 
of its task through a flexible development of the regimental organization 
of the Army. Its engineer troops and attached service companies con- 
stituted a single regiment, which functioned as a distinct Supply Service 
under the Chief Engineer of the Army. Its duty was to keep all branches 
of the American Expeditionary Force, from the base ports to the front, 
supplied with timber. It was thus one of the far-flung Services of 
Supply, "the Army behind the Army," the vast military-industrial 
organization of ships, docks, railroads, factories, bakeries, repair shops, 
distributing depots, and training camps in France, which did not fight 
battles but mthout which no battles could have been won. 

Geographical Distribution of Forestry Operations. — The Forestry 
Section resembled a large lumber corporation. As each battalion of 
troops arrived in France it was assigned to operations at points where 
the best forests were available and where the production of lumber, rail- 
road ties, or piling was most needed to supply the growing require- 
ments of the Army. The first districts to be operated were the soft- 



DISTRICT MANAGERS 341 

wood forests of the Jura, directly behind the American Advance "Section 
and near the great distributing station at Is-sur-Tille, and the pineries 
of the Landes, whose timber was rushed to Bordeaux to build the first 
American docks in France. New forestry operations followed in the 
Loire River Valley, along the main line of communications, furnishing 
materials for the large depot at Gievres, for the Air Service Shops at 
Romorantin and the Replacement Depot at St. Aignan. A little later 
forestry troops were assigned to the fir forests of the Vosges and the oak 
forests of the upper Marne, their operations ultimately extending right 
up to the American front. 

As the war progressed more and more sawmills were installed in the 
advance zone, near Nancy, Toul, and the Alsatian frontier, where their 
products could be shipped to the advance railheads with a minimum of 
time and of vital transport equipment. During the last two months of 
the war a flying squadron of small mills was organized to take to the 
field with the First Army. This operated under the engineer officers in 
charge of preparations for the St. Mihiel and Argonne offensives, supply- 
ing the advance engineer dumps from day to day with bridge timbers, 
railroad ties, bomb-proofing, fortification lumber — whatever was needed 
most urgently at the moment and could not be forwarded in time from 
the rear. Thirteen of these advance camps were operated, at times 
actually under shell-fire. 

The quest for timber also necessitated extending forestry operations 
into the northern French Alps and the Central Plateau and many new 
sawmills were set up in the Landes and at fresh locations along the main 
artery of American traffic through central and northeastern France. 

District Managers. — The operating districts were readjusted from 
time to time as new battalions and sawmills arrived and were fitted into 
the general plan. Each battalion commander was a district manager, 
running from two or three up to ten or twelve mills, with his own person- 
nel and supply officers, his own shipping organization, his own experts on 
mill and logging equipment and his own overhead staff of millwrights and 
mechanics. The battahon office received its cutting orders from the 
regimental headquarters at Tours and distributed them among its opera- 
tions to fit their timber, the other work on hand, and the all-important 
problem of obtaining the quickest and shortest transportation of the 
material to the points where it was needed. These battalion commanders, 
or district managers, represented the stable geographical units in the 
forestry organization. Their task was not only to keep their mills 
producing the last possible foot of lumber but also to steadily develop the 
resources of their territory, to locate more timber, and to master the 
intricacies of getting the best possible service from their local French 
railroads. 



342 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

The Headquarters Staff — Equipping the Sawmills. — These fourteen 
district managers were directed from the central headquarters of the 
Forestry Section, which had a staff, or departmental organization, 
patterned on industrial lines. One lieutenant-colonel with the regi- 
mental adjutant had charge of military administration and personnel, 
with their innumerable records. A second group of officers, headed by one 
of the most experienced lumbermen from the Northwest, handled the 
supply and upkeep of technical equipment — sawmills, logging tools, 
horses, motor trucks, steel and rolling stock for logging railroads, etc. 
This department supervised the going logging and manufacturing 
operations and directed the installation of sawmills and railroads at new 
locations. In less than 15 months it equipped and put through ninety- 
five sawmill installations, many of which required logging railroads as 
well as sidings to connect with existing French lines. 

Strategy in Military Lumbering. — High strategy was called for in the 
location of the forestry operations. It was not only necessary to scout 
for suitable timber and mill sets over practically all France; we had to 
keep posted, literally, from one day to the next, on the kind of products 
needed by the Army and at what points in its vast field of operations. 
Changes in the materials which were needed most critically and in the 
points whose requirements were most urgent were innumerable and 
necessitated not only an incessant revision of cutting and shipping orders 
but also frequent modifications of the plans for locating operations. 

Sales and Traffic Department. — A third department at the headquart- 
ers of the Forestry Section, under another seasoned lumberman, had 
charge of the products manufactured and their shipment. In its hands 
rested the important duty of receiving and correlating requisitions for tim- 
ber from every branch of the Army, and of determining, under general 
instructions from the Chief Engineer or the General Staff, the order in 
which they should be supphed. This was a task of no small difficulty and 
responsibility during the summer of 1918 when orders were flying in for 
three times what the Forestry Section was able to produce. This de- 
partment also worked over and standardized the specifications for the 
innumerable forms of timber demanded and fitted them to what our mills 
and loggers could cut from French timber under pressure for the utmost 
speed in production. It issued the cutting and shipping orders to the 
district commanders and put all its energy and resourcefulness into pro- 
viding cars or boats and getting the shipments through in time. 

Let it be said in passing, that transportation was the neck — a very 
small neck — of the bottle. Lack of transport equipment was by all odds 
the greatest difficulty which the entire Services of Supply had to over- 
come. Every conceivable scheme was employed to keep lumber and 
railroad ties moving steadily to the front and other points of use, including 



SAWMILLS AND LOGGING EQUIPMENT 343 

fleets of motor trucks, barges, and shuttle trains of American cars on fixed 
runs whenever they could be obtained. By indefatigable efforts and the 
use of many expedients, the Department of Product and Shipment kept 
the movement of lumber on current orders within 86 per cent of pro- 
duction and the shipment of railroad ties within 72 per cent of the cut. 
One officer who handled deliveries from a group of mills in the Landes 
moved about 100,000,000 feet of lumber over a single railroad system in a 
year's time, a record which would rank high in American lumber traffic 
during normal times. 

The Timberland Department. — A fourth staff department at forestry 
headquarters was responsible for obtaining the standing timber for 
exploitation. It organized and conducted a reconnaissance to locate 
suitable forests in practically all parts of France, including the Pyrenees 
and the southern Alps; passed upon all proposed acquisitions; put desir- 
able purchases or condemnations through the established French agen- 
cies; and threshed out the terms as to price and cutting requirements. 
Officers of this branch represented the American Army on the inter- 
allied committee which correlated and controlled all purchases of forests 
for military requirements in the French Zone of the Rear. Through 
other officers it also had access to the French Army organization which 
controlled the disposal of forests in the Zone of the Advance. Between 
September 1, 1917, and the signing of the armistice this department 
acquired some 630,000,000 feet of saw, pole, and tie timber and 700,000 
cords of fuel wood. Half as much more had been located and cruised 
and was in process of acquisition. 

SAWMILLS AND LOGGING EQUIPMENT 
Early Makeshifts. — At the outset the forest engineers were sadly 
handicapped by the delay in the arrival of their sawmills and logging 
equipment. Many were the expedients resorted to to make good this 
deficiency. The first piles cut in the Landes were hauled to the railroad 
by man power, on the running gear of army escort wagons. At another 
camp ties were hewn with the most heterogeneous collection of axes 
ever assembled and logged out by mule teams outfitted with bridles of 
sacking — with 20-penny spikes for bits — and with harness of rope 
and wire. Eight stationary French mills were taken over and operated. 
These were Httle, under-powered affairs with very fight saws. For a 
carriage there was usually a little platform on miniature wheels on which 
logs were fed to the saw with the bare hands or by a hand-turned crank. 
Bolstered up and made over by the resourceful American mechanics, 
five or six thousand feet a day was still all that most of these little plants 
could turn out; and they were discarded as rapidly as American equip- 
ment arrived. 



344 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

The Heavy Sawmill. — Three types of American sawmills were 
employed in France and they proved to be well adapted to the varying 
size of her forests and the different grades of timber. The first was a 
well-powered permanent steam plant, rated to cut 20,000 feet of lumber 
in 10 hours. It carried a circular head-saw with a 3-saw edger and two 
cut-offs. It required a substantial installation, with a dutch oven for 
the best steaming and cement mounting for the engine, but could be 
set up so as to begin cutting lumber, under the pressure of war-time 
urgency, in 12 or 14 days. Its ample power and weight and the sub- 
stantial character of its parts permitted continuous hard driving at high 
speed, the key to production. Operated for two shifts daily, these mills 
turned out from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 board feet per month. Some of 
them exceeded 2,000,000 feet in their best months' runs. These sawmills 
were utilized for all of the larger timber purchases, which in France 
meant areas of from 10 to 30 million feet. They were also much more 
satisfactory for the larger and heavier timl^er. In fact, for military re- 
quirements, in which dollars and cents cut no figure, the ''large" mill 
was regarded generally as the most effective for compact sets containing 
4,000,000 feet or more of timber. 

The Light Sawmill. — The second type was a much more portable mill, 
adapted to the innumerable small woodlots and chateau forests of France. 
It carried a 30-horsepower over-mounted engine and was rated to cut 
10,000 board feet of lumber in 10 hours. It could be put up on tim- 
ber foundations in 4 days. One of these mills, in fact, was moved 35 
kilometers in the Landes, was reset, and began cutting its first log 47 
hours after sawing the last log at the old site. These plants manu- 
factured the same class and variety of products as the larger mill but 
could not withstand the same degree of driving. Many of them, how- 
ever, cut steadily 600,000 board feet per month ; and one of them made a 
month's record of a million feet of hardwood lumber and ties. 

The Flying Sawmill. — The third plant was the last word in portable 
sawmills — a little bolter rig running a single 36-inch saw and weighing 
but 3 tons with all of its equipment. It was rated to cut 5,000 board 
feet in 10 hours l^ut could turn out much more than that. Its best work 
was done on logs 16 feet and under in diameter and 10 feet or less in 
length. It proved an excellent little machine for slabbing railroad ties 
or sawing unedged plank such as were used extensively in field fortifi- 
cations. This diminutive sawmill could be operated by a 25-horse- 
power steam or gas engine of any type but was most effective in com- 
bination with a 10-ton caterpillar tractor, both for operation and for its 
own transportation. The rig can be taken down in 4 or 5 hours, loaded on 
a couple of log wagons, moved by its own power to a new site, and reset 
in a similar length of time. The bolter mill and caterpillar made ideal 



THE TRANSPORT PROBLEM 345 

equipment for the flying squadron of forestry troops working in the 
combat zone and for short sets in small timber at any point. It was 
often combined with larger plants, for slabbing small logs into ties, or 
moved into the woods after the large timber had been logged — to work 
up small material. 

Heavy and Light Artillery in Timber Warfare, — All told, the Forestry 
Section marshalled a battery of 27 large mills, 62 light mills, and 61 of 
the little portables. These different types of sawmills proved to be well 
adapted to operating requirements in the French forests, with their 
wide variety in extent and in the size and quality of their timber. They 
also afforded well-balanced equipment for the numerous and varied 
demands of military operations. Sawmills, like artillery, must be adapted 
to work at different ranges from the trenches. The heavy, or com- 
paratively permanent, mills were well fitted for long-time operations near 
permanent depots and base ports where continuous hard driving to 
produce the maximum quantity of lumber was of the first importance. 
The other types proved well adapted to the more temporary operations 
in which mobility and speed in setting up were the principal factors. 
With this complement of sawmills the Forestry Section kept from 80 
to 90 milling operations going continuously, several of which employed 
two or more machines. A 30 per cent excess of sawmills is none too 
great for keeping an army supplied with timber under the strenuous 
conditions which existed in France. New mills were being installed 
constantly up to the day of the armistice and it was essential that this 
be done without stopping production at the established plants. 

The Transport Problem. — First and last, the toughest problem in 
practical lumbering which the forest engineers had to overcome was the 
transportation of logs from woods to sawmill and of piling, poles, etc., 
from woods to railroad shipping point. Its difficulty was increased by 
the many different kinds of ground and topography which were en- 
countered. In southern France it was a succession of flat sand plains, 
with occasional stretches of sand so loose as to make wheel traction 
very difficult. In the hardwood forests on the plains and hills of central 
and eastern France, the great obstacle was bottomless clay mud which, 
in its frequent state of saturation from weeks of continuous rain, defied 
almost any kind of traction put upon it. 

In the fir forests of eastern France the logging conditions were more 
like those of the Adirondacks or the White Mountains. There was 
much good logging ground, some steep grades, bad patches of rock and 
moss, and occasional "sled snows" in wintertime. To find the right 
equipment for each job was not easy. The rough and ready mechanical 
skill of the American lumberjack was never displayed to better advantage. 
Spool skidders and 4 and 8 wheel log wagons were the mainstays, the 



346 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

former for short-distance skidding, up to 300 yards; the latter for hauls, 
up to 6 or 8 miles. Big wheels were used successfully on several jobs 
for skidding distances intermediate between those adapted to the spool 
skidders and hauls requiring a log wagon. They were employed in 
moving out piUng at a number of operations. Drays, or "go-devils," 
were constructed for short-distance work in mud or snow or on rough 
ground at many operations; and in several instances the old-fashioned 
bob-sled — for long hauls on snow roads — came into its own. 

Value of French Highways. — Much of the log transportation was 
facilitated greatly by the splendid system of French forest roads and sur- 
faced highways. The maintenance of this wonderful network of rural 
communication all over France is a phase not only of preparedness for 
war but of national efficiency at all times which the United States would 
do well to emulate. Logs could often be handled by motor truck to a 
central mill site from several small forests within a radius of 10 or 12 
miles. Enormous quantities of poles, piles, hewn ties, lumber, and fuel 
wood were moved to rail by the same means. Much normal railway 
traffic was, under the exigencies of the general transport situation, 
handled by fleets of motor trucks and trailers. 

Motor Trucks and Caterpillars. — With the motor trucks and iron- 
tired tractors, which were used both in the woods and on hard roads, it 
was found necessary to have two types of trailers, each of about 5-ton 
capacity. The first was a high-speed trailer, with rubber tires and roller 
bearings, adapted to fast work on good roads. The second was a slow- 
speed trailer, with high wheels and 6-inch iron tires. This machine was 
designed for work in the woods primarily, although it was often ad- 
vantageous to send a string of trailers from the landings through to the 
mill or railroad, without rehandling their loads but perhaps changing the 
type of power when hard roads were reached. One of the most difficult 
transportation jobs required in France was the moving of 90 and 100 foot 
piling out of the Vosges Mountains. This was done with gas tractors 
and iron-tired trailers, the latter fitted with special built-up bunks for 
the purpose. 

Caterpillar tractors did wonderful work in hauling trailers or log 
wagons over ground which was impassable to horses and to any other 
type of motor equipment. These powerful machines with 8-wheeled log 
wagons were the last resort in keeping logs moving through sodden clay 
mud when everything else had failed. 

Logging Railways. — The forestry operations in France had to resort to 
logging railroads or horse trams in many cases because of lack of horses, 
the lack of suitable motor traction, difficulties arising from mud, swamps, 
or loose sand, and in several cases because of the large quantities of 
timber to be moved over distances of 2 to 6 miles. In many operations, 



THE SPECIAL FUEL SUPPLY SERVICE 347 

in fact, the logging railroad demonstrated its superiority, where topog- 
raphy was favorable, even for sets as small as 6,000,000 feet. A difficult 
area in the Vosges Mountains was logged by means of a 4,000-foot meter 
gauge incline, with an average grade of 35 per cent, down which carloads 
of logs were lowered by donkey engine and cable. 

The light railway sectional track, of various gauges 2 feet and under, 
used by the Army at the front, was emplo^^ed in many forestry operations. 
It rendered good service in handling light products, like poles and fuel 
wood, and was used successfully at several operations for transporting 
logs. It was often preferable for small jobs because laying and removal 
were so fast. For extended operations, however, the forestry officers 
found that 3-foot gauge track laid with 25 or 40 pound steel saved time 
and cost in the long run. When our real 3-foot gauge rolling stock 
arrived and steel rails were available in sufficient quantities the difficulties 
of the forestry operations were materially reduced. 

• 

THE PRODUCTION OF FUEL WOOD 

An Enormous Problem in Itself. — Supplying the American Army with 
fuel wood was a special problem in itself, whose proportions increased 
from month to month practically in a fixed ratio to the increase in the 
number of American soldiers in France. Considerable supplies of fuel 
wood were obtained from French stocks. Cutting the added amounts 
needed was not a serious matter during the first winter of American 
operations, but became an enormous task during the fall and winter of 
1918-19. The monthly production necessary to keep the Army warm 
and fed reached the figure of 287,000 cubic meters in December, 1918. 

Fuel Wood Cut by the Forest Engineers. — The forest engineers them- 
selves cut large quantities of fuel as a by-product in all their operations. 
It was obtained not only from mill slabs and edgings and from treetops, 
but also from the dense stands of sprouts which covered the ground in 
most of the hardwood forests which were operated and which had to be 
swamped out in logging the large timber. By April 1, 1919, the Forestry 
Section produced 1,195,000 cubic meters of fuel wood. Owing to the 
shortage of transport, however, but 50 per cent of this amount could be 
moved to the points where it was needed. The supplemental production 
of fuel wood was essential and it had to be localized, particularly in the 
Advance Section, in the immediate vicinity of the larger bodies of troops. 

The Special Fuel Supply Service. — During the first winter this was 
done under the direction of the Quartermaster Corps by employing 
civilian labor, by details from combat organizations, and by the assign- 
ment of a few companies of infantry to this particular duty. The use of 
combat troops for this work proved unsatisfactory and led invariably 



348 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

to large damage claims for injuries to the carefully regulated French 
forests. The enormous demands in prospect during the summer of 1918 
made it necessary, in any event, to organize a special fuel wood service 
on a much larger scale. The Quartermaster Corps thereupon assigned 
10,600 of its service troops to this duty in the Advance Section. This 
project was placed under the direction of a Heutenant-colonel of the 
Forestry Section with a supply officer from the Q. M. C. Thirty-three 
officers and non-commissioned officers were furnished by the Forestry 
Section to locate and acquire the timber needed and supervise its cutting. 
The Quartermaster troops included fifteen pack trains, two wagon trains, 
and a motor truck company. 

This hastily assembled organization conducted thirty-eight fuel wood 
camps, all told, in the hardwood coppice forests of northeastern France. 
Its operations were distributed through practically all of the divisional 
training areas in the Advance Section and six companies were employed 
during September and October, 1918, to supply the troops constituting 
the First Army. It was a task of no small difficulty to organize and 
equip this enormous force of woodcutters. As usual, the question of 
transport was the kernel of the problem. Every sort of available equip- 
ment which could move fuel wood was utilized — tractors, motor trucks, 
40 and 60 centimeter sectional track, lumber wagons, escort wagons, 
two-wheeled French carts, and sleds. Chutes made of corrugated iron 
were employed at several operations ; and a deal of fuel wood was dragged 
or carried out to hard roads by sheer man power. Forty-centimeter sec- 
tional track with hght cars, moved by mule or man power, proved to 
be very serviceable equipment. The fuel wood camps were placed, as 
far as possible, right in the troop areas, and much of the wood, once 
placed on hard roads, was distributed by the transport equipment of the 
division which used the fuel. 

In spite of the difficulties encountered, the special fuel supply unit 
was thoroughly successful and tided the Army over the shortage of 
fuel wood which would otherwise have been acute during the cold months 
of 1918-19. A total of 930,000 cubic meters was cut, giving the Army 
a comfortable surplus over its requirements and indeed permitting the 
turning over of considerable quantities of fuel to the French when the 
Advance Section was evacuated. 

WHAT THE FOREST ENGINEERS ACCOMPLISHED 

The Beginning and the End. — The first log was sawed by American 
forestry troops at a little French mill in the Jura Mountains on Novem- 
ber 26, 1917. Three days later the first American sawmill in France 
began operating in a forest of Scotch pine on the Loire River. Prior 
to these dates another camp of forestry troops in the southwestern 



WINNING THE WAR WITH LUMBER 349 

pineries had begun cutting 50-foot piles which were urgently needed for 
the American docks at Bordeaux. Less than one year later, when the 
armistice was signed with Germany, the forestry troops were operating 
eighty-one American sawmills and cutting 2,000,000 board feet of lum- 
ber, ties, piles, and poles every working day, aside from vast quantities 
of fuelwood. Within this year's time over 90 per cent of the personnel 
of the Forestry Section had landed in France, taken their stations, put 
up their sawmills, constructed their railroad connections, and cut 300,- 
000,000 board feet of lumber and railroad ties, 38,000 piles, and 2,878,000 
poles and entanglement stakes. The cut of fuel wood during the same 
period was some 317,000 cords. 

The Spirit of the Forestry Troops. — A deal of labor, of Yankee 
ingenuity, and of determination to back up the fighting troops of the 
American force with the timber which they needed were required in 
producing these results. Nor is it possible to describe the pressure 
upon all of us during the summer and fall of 1918 when every lumber- 
jack in the regiment felt the tenseness of the final grapple and put 
everything he had into it. I will never forget the big mill at Eclaron 
as I saw it one October night — ■ sparks streaming from its stacks, its 
two carriages flashing back and forth, loads of oak logs creaking up to 
the mill deck, cars being shunted about, ties loaded into them hot from 
the saws, and the sober, earnest faces of the men as they worked under 
the electric lights. They were shipping 5,000 ties daily to the Argonne 
offensive. That scene was typical of the eighty or more forestry opera- 
tions in France during the great drive. 

Winning the War with Lumber. — The daily and monthly mill cuts 
afford an excellent index of the spirit which the lumberjack engineers 
put into their work. Rated capacities quickly disappeared in the saw- 
dust. The 27th Company, at Mouthe, holds the record for the largest 
day's cut at any forestry operation. This company produced 177,486 
board feet of fir lumber and timbers on a ''20,000" mill in 23 hours and 
25 minutes. The 37th Company, formerly Company F of the Tenth 
Engineers, made the largest 20-hour cut, 163,376 feet, with the same 
type of mill and product. The camp of the 26th Company, at la Cluse, 
carried off the pennant for a 20-hour run with a "10,000" mill, knock- 
ing out 78,881 feet of fir lumber and timbers. Three other companies, 
operating in softwood timber, made daily records with 10,000-foot mills 
of from 63,000 to 68,650 feet. Several of the 10,000-foot mills made 
daily records, in two shifts, of from 40,000 to 55,539 feet of hardwood 
lumber, ties, and timbers. 

One of the most remarkable achievements was that of the 19th Com- 
pany in the 7th Battalion, which in 10| hours cut 64,000 board feet of 
Qak ties with a bolter mill rated to produce 5,000 feet per shift. 



350 



THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 



In the face of the enormous quantities of timber required to carry for- 
ward the work of the American Army in almost all of its branches, 
every possible effort was made to speed up production at the forestry 
operations. Practically all of the sawmills were operated day and 
night, some of them on three 8-hour shifts. More than double the 
rated capacity of the plants was obtained currently at many of the 
forestry operations — by continuous hard driving. The following 
figures, covering 7 months in 1918, illustrate the rate at which mill 
capacity was increased during the critical period of the war and also the 
actual output of sawed products as compared with the rated capacity 
of the plants. 



Month 
(1918) 



Number of mills 



Average rated 

capacity per 

10 hours, 

M ft. b.m. 



Average 
cut per day, 
M ft. b.m. 



March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August — 
September 



33 
41 

48 
54 
64 

68 

77 



255 
303 
402 
542 

757 
797 
850 



302 

560 

665 

835 

1,215 

1,550 

1,700 



The last column contains the actual daily output, including time 
lost from breakdowns, shifts in location, and delays incident to the 
operating of new mills. 

The principal thing which made such a showing possible was the 
experience and skill of the men comprising the forestry companies and 
the esprit de corps which actuated their work. These qualities in its 
personnel were by far the greatest asset of the Forestry Section. The 
actual accomplishment of the Forest Engineers as a distinctive unit in 
the American Army was summed up in these words from their command- 
ing officer, shortly after the armistice was signed: 

"Recent reports from the various depots and construction projects 
of the American E. F. show that the Army was at the time of conclud- 
ing the armistice well supplied with lumber. When ties were called for 
in large quantities to support the advances of our troops at St. Mihiel 
and in the Argonne they were ready. At practically every dock project 
deliveries of piling and lumber were well ahead of the construction. In 
other words, the Forestry troops have made good on the work for which 
they were brought to France. Notwithstanding the difficulties in 
obtaining equipment and transportation, notwithstanding the enormous 
increase in the size of the American E. F., and the work which it under- 
took over the original estimates, the Army has been given the lumber 



COOPERATION WITH FOREST AGENCIES 351 

which it needed, and the suspension of hostilities finds us with a sub- 
stantial surplus which will be used for the restoration of France." 

COOPERATION WITH THE FOREST AGENCIES OF FRANCE 

French Organization of Timber Supplies for the War. — When the 
advance guard of Forest Engineers reached Paris in 1917, they found 
the French Government and Army highly organized for the procurement 
of timber for military requirements. Each of the French Army groups 
carried a Forestry Service on its staff, with an elaborate organization 
extending throughout its entire section of the Army Zone. This service 
requisitioned existing stocks of lumber or wood, bought or requisitioned 
forests, ran sawmills with German prisoners or French engineer troops, 
and operated its own transport system for distributing forest products 
to all units in the Army group. This was a purely military organization 
which exercised practically absolute control over all forests and forest- 
grown materials in the territory designated as the Army Zone. 

A distinct organization functioned in the Zone of the Rear, under 
the Minister of Munitions. It centered in the Inspector General of 
Timber who directed the activities of some twenty "timber centers" 
embracing all parts of France outside of the Army Zone. Each timber 
center consisted of a group of French engineer or forest officers who 
purchased or requisitioned forests, operated sawmills with prisoners of 
war or military labor, and largely controlled the disposal of timber 
products cut by private agencies. They were authorized by a war-time 
decree to requisition 75 per cent of the output of any sawmill at a scale 
of prices fixed by the Inspector General and also made contracts for 
railroad ties, piling, barracks, and other special products needed by the 
armies. This was a civilian organization, although made up largely of 
militarized personnel, responsible to the French Cabinet and obtaining 
and distributing its timber in accordance with the programs formulated 
by the Minister of War and Minister of Munitions. 

The Service of Waters and Forests under the Department of Agri- 
culture maintained its customary organization and functions during 
the war, although with ranks sadly depleted by the call to arms. It 
administered all of the State forests and the great bulk of the communal 
forests and forests owned by public institutions. Its guards and rangers 
were to be found in practically every forested canton of France; and its 
inspectors and conservators represented an exceptionally intelligent and 
expert corps of foresters who rendered assistance of the utmost value 
to the allied armies in locating suitable supplies of wood. They deter- 
mined the maximum quantities of timber that could be cut from State 
and communal forests without doing serious violence to their plans of 



352 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

management and placed most of these cuttings at the disposal of the 
war-time supply services as preferred purchasers. 

Early Negotiations with the French Government. — Rather extended 
negotiations were necessary before the work of supplying the American 
Army with timber was adjusted effectively to these existing forestry 
organizations in France. Not alone were the means of obtaining forests 
for American operations involved; other questions, such as the advance 
of lumber and railroad ties from French stocks for the most immediate 
and urgent needs of our Army, the control of American wood purchases 
by the French Government, and the loan of American troops and equip- 
ment to the Inspector General of Timber, had to be settled. A satis- 
factory adjustment of these matters was reached in the latter part of 
August, 1917, and reasonably effective cooperation with the various 
French agencies then developed. 

The Interallied Timber Committee. — A committee which had 
existed previously for correlating the forest purchases of the French and 
British supply services was expanded into the Interallied Committee on 
War Timber, with French, British, Canadian, Belgian, and American 
representatives. This committee functioned under the French In- 
spector General of Timber and served as a clearing house for the con- 
sideration of all requests from the various armies for the purchase of 
forests in the Zone of the Rear and for adjusting conflicting demands. 
The purchase of any forest for a particular army had to be passed upon 
by this committee before action was taken through the competent French 
agencies. 

Once the purchase of a particular tract of timber was approved by 
the committee and sanctioned by the Inspector General, a direct cession 
was obtained from the Waters and Forests Service in the case of State 
or communal holdings, the cession specifying the quantity, price, and 
cutting requirements. If the tract was privately owned a commission 
of French forest experts undertook the estimate and appraisal of the 
stumpage and the negotiations for its purchase. If a friendly purchase 
could not be effected a request for the requisition of the property was 
made to a still different war-time organization, called the Standing 
Committee on War Timber. This board was composed of the Inspector 
General, representatives of the Department of Agriculture, members of 
Parliament, and prominent French lumber manufacturers. It had been 
created in the course of the war as a means of developing and controlling 
the general policy of the French Government for meeting military 
demands for forest products, and was the final court on the condemna- 
tion of private forests. 

Forest Acquisitions in the War Zone. — At the same time that officers 
of the Forestry Section took their places in this somewhat complicated 



CUTTING REQUIREMENTS 353 

administrative machinery for the purchase of forests in the Zone of the 
Rear, other American officers were stationed at the headquarters of our 
Army at Chaumont and estabhshed direct connections with the French 
Army organizations which controlled timber supplies in the War Zone. 
Their procedure for acquiring forests, based upon martial law, was 
much more direct and expeditious. 

Scouting France for Timber. — Thereafter the acquisition of forests for 
operation by our troops, which began to arrive in October, 1917, moved 
forward rapidly. The advance guard of foresters and lumbermen who 
preceded the troops were employed largely on reconnaissance to locate 
suitable operating units. As each battalion of forest engineers arrived, 
one or more of its officers took up the same work in their immediate 
operating region. Reports on desirable areas came in thick and fast 
and their acquisition was pushed through the various stages as rapidly 
as possible. Notwithstanding many delaj's and difficulties and the 
inability to carry through requisitions of private forests in some in- 
stances, the Forestry Section was able to locate all of its incoming troops 
at operating points without loss of time and to keep them continuously 
supplied wdth timl^er. 

Cutting Requirements Imposed by the French. — The French agencies 
retained control of the technical requirements to be observed in all 
forestry operations and frequently inspected the American cuttings. 
The methods of cutting State and communal forests were drafted by 
the conservator of the district and fixed in the terms of cession. Officers 
of the Forest Service inspected these operations very closely. Cutting 
regulations applicable to private forests were usually outlined in the 
report of the expert commission in connection with the appraisal of the 
timber. These were later embodied and sometimes changed in the 
formal contracts made with the owners of the forests by the local timber 
centers. Such contracts were almost uniformly delayed until long 
after cutting had begun; but a liaison officer, representing the Inspector 
General in each region, directed the methods to be followed in cutting 
private forests and settled complaints from owners. In the Army Zone 
these duties were discharged by an engineer officer representing the 
Timber Supply Service of the Army staff. 

The requirements of French forestry were rather strictly enforced 
in operations on State or communal holdings. In a few instances even, 
large, full-crowned fir or spruce trees had to be limbed before felling in 
order to reduce the injury to young growth when they were brought to 
the ground. In a few cases the terms of cession required cutting out 
patches of briars to facilitate the regeneration of the forest or pulling 
up the stumps of species like beech, which the French foresters wished 
to get rid of for silvicultural reasons. The piling of slash was required 



354 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

in'^the pine and fir forests of central and eastern France, but not as a 
rule in the hardwood forests where the close utilization of fuel wood left 
practically nothing but small twigs. In cutting hardwood coppice 
special precautions had to be taken to leave smooth, rounded stumps 
which would shed water and prevent decay injurious to the new crop 
of sprouts. 

Restrictions upon the Amount of Timber Cut. — The most serious 
restriction from the standpoint of effective logging was the limitation 
on the quantity of timber which could be removed from many forests. 
In the southern pineries, following the forestry system of the region, 
the timber was cut clean and the requirements imposed were compara- 
tively simple. In the hardwood forests and the softwood forests of 
the eastern mountains only trees selected and marked by the French 
foresters could be cut. These usually comprised from 15 to 40 per 
cent of the actual volume of merchantable timber. In the State and 
communal forests of the Vosges and Jura, containing many fine areas 
of fir and spruce timber, cutting was restricted to a limited number of 
"coupes" which were ready for felling under the exact methods of 
management applied by the Waters and Forests Service. Blocks of 
mature timber would be withheld, for example, because the regeneration 
of young trees was not sufficiently advanced. 

As the result of constant pressure by the American representatives 
in the interally organization, the markings in these forests were often 
extended to include from five to ten "annual possibilities," that is, from 
five to ten times the quantity permitted to be cut in one year under the 
plan prescribed for the management of the forest in question. All the 
timber marked, however, was restricted to trees which could be removed 
properly from the stand^aoint of maturity and the generation of the 
next crop. As a matter of fact French forestry practice is so conserva- 
tive that many of these forests carried an excessive amount of old timber, 
and cuttings of this character and extent were not injurious from a 
purely technical standpoint. The most extreme illustration of the 
strict application of French forestry requirements occurred in a few 
large, rich forests where the cutting of but a small fraction of the mer- 
chantable timber was allowed, this being restricted mainly to windfalls 
or thinnings. 

The usual forestry rules were departed from in the case of many 
private forests which had been requisitioned or whose owners were 
favorable to a heavier cut than would ordinarily be permitted. On a 
few large hardwood areas such special concessions allowed the removal 
of as much as 80 per cent of the merchantable material. 

Meeting French Foresters on Their Own Ground. — The officers who 
represented the American Army in the negotiations with the French 



FRENCH VIEW OF AMERICAN OPERATIONS 355 

foresters were quick to appreciate how little their conceptions of sound 
forestry practice had yielded to the urgent demands of the war. We 
could but respect this vigorous assertion of the national instinct for forest 
conservation in the face of a world-wide emergency, although at times it 
appeared to be carried farther than a vigorous and effective prosecution 
of the war should permit. The American officers endeavored consist- 
ently to meet the French foresters on their own ground, and to under- 
stand and work in harmony with their technical requirements. This 
was indeed the attitude of the operation commanders and of the rank 
and file of the forestry troops to a remarkable degree, considering how 
foreign the French forestry viewpoint was to their past experience and 
habits of thought as lumbermen. The French foresters thus acquired 
a large measure of confidence in the American engineers at work in their 
woods, a fact which proved to be of great benefit to the Forestry Section 
in the long run. 

The French View of American Operations. — As a matter of fact the 
French made practically no serious criticisms of the American cuttings 
as far as compliance with forestry requirements was concerned. The 
common sense and practical understanding of the situation on the part 
of the average French forester made many requirements less burden- 
some in practice than they threatened to be in the formal contract. 
The criticism of the French was directed chiefly against the American 
methods of utilizing timber, particularly the 7 and 9 gauge circular 
saws with which our mills were equipped. Accustomed for centuries 
to the closest possible utilization of valuable timber, with human labor 
and rate of production wholly secondary considerations, and to the use 
of narrow bandsaws of a thinness approached only in light work in 
planing-mills or wood-working factories in the United States, the wide 
kerf eaten out of the logs by the heavy American circular saws was 
anathema to the thrifty French. Nor were they convinced by the 
American argument that heavy equipment was necessary to stand up 
under the continuous hard driving required to get the maximum pro- 
duction from our mills and that the war would be won by volume of 
output rather than a minimum of waste. 

A related question was that of the class of products cut from large, 
high-grade timber. The State foresters could not forget how they had 
sought from time immemorial to make the public forests of France supply 
the clear, high-grade timbers, in large sizes, needed by her industries. 
When an American captain under the pressure of ''rush" orders cut 
such logs into ties or scantling, as occasionally happened, the incident 
was apt to become a subject for grave discussion by the Inspector General 
at his monthly meeting with all the Allied forestry chiefs. The upkeep 
of their wonderful system of forest roads and surfaced highways was 



356 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

another thing which the French forester kept close at heart and which 
the impatient American was apt to put aside. Thoroughgoing repairs 
on all of the roads used in our operations, however, were made by the 
forest engineers before they left France. 

French Difficulties in Supplying American Requirements. — In 
judging the effectiveness of the cooperation of the French with the 
American Forestry Section, it must not be forgotten that the war brought 
many difficulties and problems to the forest agencies of the country, 
and that these were vastly increased by the presence of the American 
Army. Not only did France have to supply her own vast military re- 
quirements from her limited forest resources as well as the bulk of the 
lumber needed by the British, Belgian, and American forces; she had 
also to meet the urgent needs of her civilian population and she had to 
foresee and provide for the restoration of the sixth of her territory which 
the Germans occupied. Moreover, the French are an exceedingly 
democratic and individualistic nation. Forest conservation and the 
sacredness of property rights are two of their most cherished and deeply 
rooted characteristics. The war administration had to hold the political 
support of these people during four and a half years of stress and sacrifice. 
Any source of dissatisfaction or unrest strengthened the "defaitists," 
who sought an early peace at any terms. 

Discontent over the inroads upon French forests was already rife 
during the winter of 1917. During 1918 it assumed the proportions of 
an organized movement. It became the subject of interpellations on 
the floor of Parliament. The opposition of the turpentine workers in 
the Landes against what was regarded as a depletion of the forests upon 
which their livelihood depended necessitated a change in the spring of 
1918 in the methods of purchasing timber in that region. Thereafter 
all forest acquisitions in southwestern France had to be passed upon 
and approved by a local commission on which the "resiniers" were 
represented. During the summer of 1918, when the Germans were at 
the very gates of Paris, the whole system of acquiring forests for military 
requirements in the Zone of the Rear had to be reorganized, with new 
officials representing the "opposition" in Parliament in positions of 
control. 

Effectiveness of French Cooperation. — In consideration of these 
difficulties with which the French Government was confronted, its 
cooperation in supplying the American Army with timber must, in all 
fairness, be regarded not only as a vital factor in the success of our 
military operations but also as effective as the circumstances permitted. 
It was inevitable that the French should view the cutting of their forests 
for war purposes differently from the Americans; and that their inborn 
attitude toward forests and their training in forest conservation should 



FOREST TROOPS LOANED 357 

find expression in a degree of caution and control which the impatient 
Yankee could not understand. The whole French attitude toward the 
war was different from our own. Wars come and pass, in every genera- 
tion, but forests remain as a vital element in national economy. 

Notwithstanding procedure that was often cumbersome and delays 
that were often vexatious, notwithstanding restrictions that at times 
seemed petty and unnecessary, the American Army, first and last, was 
amply supplied with timber from the French forests. At no time were 
the operations of the forest engineers seriously handicapped either by 
lack of timber or by the requirements which governed its removal. The 
slowness and conservatism of the French administrative machinery was 
offset largely by the extraordinary ability and personal force of in- 
dividual French forest officers. It is to these men who quickly grasped 
the requirements of the American Army and the American manner of 
doing things and who found a way through nearly every difficulty that 
the success in obtaining the standing timber needed for our operations 
in France was largely due. 

FOREST TROOPS LOANED TO FRENCH AND BRITISH ARMIES 

One of the first acts of the American Government after entering the 
war was to promise a regiment of lumbermen to the British Army. 
Shortly after another regiment was assured tentatively to the French 
Army, a promise later confirmed and enlarged by the Commander-in- 
Chief of the Expeditionary Force. The enormous increase in the size 
of the American forces in France sul^sequently determined upon, with 
their corresponding demands for timber, made it impossible to fulfill 
these agreements until after a fair start had been made toward supplying 
our own troops with the material essential to their initial operations in 
France. 

In February, 1918, however, it was possible to assign a battalion of 
forest troops to each of the French and British forces. The battalion 
loaned to the French arrived and was established at operations selected 
by the Inspector General of the French Timber Service in March, 1918. 
It functioned as an American unit in all respects except that its forests 
were provided by the French Government and its products were furnished 
directly to the French Army. This battalion operated for French re- 
quirements until February 1, 1919, cutting over 13,000,000 feet of 
sawed material, 125,000 pieces of round products, and 46,000 cubic 
meters of fuel wood. Its work elicited the warmest praise from the 
French Government. 

The battalion assigned to the British Army was torpedoed on the 
transport Tuscania and was unable to begin lumber manufacture in 



358 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE 

France until May, 1918. It worked for the British forces until October 
of the same year, cutting over 14,000,000 board feet of lumber and 
railroad ties and beating all of the Canadian and English units under 
the British Director of Forestry in its record of production. With these 
operations under its direction, the Forestry Section of the American 
Army assumed a truly allied character and was able to render valuable 
assistance to our comrades in arms on the far-flung battle line. 

WHAT THE AMERICAN WOODSMEN LEARNED IN FRANCE 

The American woodsmen in the forest regiments have learned much 
from their experience in French forests. The change from new world 
to old world methods of cutting and from new to old world viewpoints 
toward the forest was very sharp. The average lumberjack arriving in 
France was scornful of the restrictions imposed by the French foresters 
— of the smooth hardwood stumps which he was required to cut, of the 
limited felling which he was permitted to do in many fine stands of timber, 
of the sawing of big trees level with the ground, and of the watchfulness 
to prevent injury to seedlings and saplings. But as the months in the 
French forests passed by most of the American soldiers appreciated the 
fundamental common sense behind these forestry rules. Particularly as 
they came to know the French country people and to appreciate the 
scarcity of wood on their farms and in their fireplaces, they began to 
understand the whole thing as a natural outgrowth of French economic 
life, on a par with their intensive agriculture. They sensed forestry as 
simply another expression of French thrift, of the national genius for 
making the most out of their limited resources. 

The average American lumberjack left France with a far different 
attitude toward her forestry practice than he had upon arrival. How 
lasting the effects of this first-hand experience in old world methods will 
be is problematical. But certainly many of these thousands of woods- 
men have brought back to our own forests a totally new conception of 
their economic value and of practical means for conserving it. 

THE WAR A VINDICATION OF FRENCH FORESTRY 

Let it be emphasized in closing that probably never in the history of 
the world has the forest policy of a nation been so clearly vindicated as 
was that of France by the war of 1914. Wood was one of the most vital 
military necessities, and the allied armies drew the great bulk of their 
supplies from the forests of France. More than that, her forests had a 
strategic value for defense of the highest importance. For the forest 
barriers in northern France and for the abundant supplies of timber 
available to the battle lines, the allied world must thank the patience 



WAR A VINDICATION OF FRENCH FORESTRY 359 

and foresight with which the French nation has built up its forest re- 
sources. France could have kept on supplying the vast armies on her 
soil for one or two years more, if need be, without cutting seriously into 
her forest capital. Without these ample reservoirs of timber, the trans- 
port difficulties being what they were, the handicap which the alhed 
armies would have suffered would have been almost insurmountable. 
Apart from its value to her peace-time life and industries, the forest 
policy of France has been vindicated as a capital element of national 
strength in the greatest crisis of her history. 



APPENDIXES 

(A) The Forest and Springs (p. 361). 

(B) The Forest, From a Physical, P^conomic, and Social Viewpoint (p. 381). 

(C) Silvics of Important Forest Species. Lists of Trees, Shrubs, and Plants Used 
in Reforestation in the Mountains (p. 387). 

(D) Statistics on Public and Private Forests over Five Thousand Acres in Area 
(p. 409) 

(E) Typical Reforestation Areas in the Mountains (p. 422). 

(F) Specifications for Tapping Maritime Pine and for Fixing Shifting Sand Dunes 
(p. 429). 

(G) State and Communal Timber Sale Regulations (p. 438). 

(H) French Forest Literature (in Library, Nancy Forest School) published 1870- 
1912, classified as follows: (a) Forestry Proper, etc., (b) Forest Law, (c) Forest Educa- 
tion, (d) Engineering (Reboisement), (e) Forest Administration, (/) Miscellaneous, (g) 
Botanical and Silvical (p. 448). 

(I) German Comment on French Forestry with a Comparison with German Meth- 
ods, by Dr. Martin, of Tharandt (p. 469). 

(J) The Forests of Alsace-Lorraine (p. 495). 

(K) Original Working Plan Data (p. 500). (1) State Forest of Grande-Cote (Jura) 
(p. 500); (2) State Forest of Ban d':6tival (Vosges) (p. 508); (3) Communal Forest 
of Mont Gloire (Savoie) (p. 511); (4) Communal Forest of Lardies (Basses-Pyrenees) 
(p. 512); (5) State Forest of La Joux (Jura) (p. 512); (6) Communal Forest of Fillinges 
(Haute-Savoie) (p. 515); (7) Communal Forest of Burdignin (Haute-Savoie) (p. 516); 
(8) State Forest of Parc-et-St. Quentin (Oise) (p. 517); (9) Communal Forest of Thiez 
(Haute-Savoie) (p. 517). 

(L) Model Insurance Calculations of Damage by Fire (p. 534). 



360 



APPENDIX A 

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 

(By Huffel) 

Springs and Their Origin. — Before approaching the difficult and controversial 

question of the influence of forests on the maintenance of springs, i it is necessary to 
define exactly what is meant by a "spring," and what is the origin of springs. 

" A spring," says Littre " is the water which issues from the ground at the origin of a 
stream." 

Nowadays everyone admits that springs are fed by the percolation of water into 
the earth derived from the atmosphere. It has been calculated ^ that the total flow 
of water into the ocean of the principal rivers of the globe represents only about three- 
sevenths of the water which falls into their basins, derived from atmospheric sources. 
There is therefore sufficient rainwater alone to feed the water courses, without its 
being necessary to seek for other sources of supply, as Descartes has done. 

Percolation, or infiltration, is the slow penetration through fissures and through 
interstices in the soil, of water derived from rain, from the melting of snows, from the 
condensation of atmospheric vapors on the surface of vegetation, and on the super- 
ficial parts of the soil. 

• These waters, after penetrating into the soU, accumulate in certain parts and form 
what is called subterranean sheets of water. 

In fact the deeper the water penetrates the less subject does it become to evaporation, 
and finally it reaches a point where it has passed beyond the region of drainage, and 
that tapped by the roots of plants. It is thus, generally speaking, that subterranean 
sheets of water are formed below this region, which, at any point where there is a de- 
pression in the .soil at their level, come out as springs.^ 

The level of the subterranean sheet of water in permeable soils is more or less deep, 
according to whether there have been recent rainfalls or not and whether these have 
been abundant or scanty. Evaporation prevents it from establishing itself habitually 
at the surface of the soil; the effect of drainage, and the suction'of plant roots will equally 
prevent the entire saturation of a more or less substantial stratum of soil, or one more 
or less deeply situated, according to the nature of the flora. Thus it will be found that 
under a forest, the stratum of soil dried by roots is appreciably deeper than that below 
a piece of ground under cultivation. 

Other things being equal, the level of "phreatic" ^ waters will be all the lower: if 
the soil is more permeable; if the rains have been less abundant or less recent; if evapora- 
tion has been greater; if the stratum drained by the roots of plants is deeper. 

^ Translated (literally) from ficonomie Forestiere, G. Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 83-124, 
Chapter III, "The Forest and Springs." 

2 filisee Reclus, "La Terre." 

3 See the "Traite de Geologie" of M. de Lapparent, 4th edition 1900, Vol. I, p. 195 
and following pages. 

^ Daubrce ("Les Eaux Souterraines." Vol. I, p. 19) has introduced this term to 
designate the sheet of subterranean water the nearest to the surface, because this is 
the one which feeds the weUs. 

361 



362 APPENDIX 

In order to understand precisely the nature of springs, it is necessary to distinguish 
three different types: those in permeable soils, which are called "thalwegs"; those in 
stratified soils; and those in soils where fissures abound. 

Let us take the case of a surface composed of permeable ground which is perfectly 
horizontal; under this the water which filters through will form a sheet of which the 
surface will be level, and will approach more nearly to the surface of the soil, according 
to whether the precipitations have been more abundant or more recent. 

This point estabUshed, then if the plain happens to be approached by a valley the 
latter will produce upon it an effect of drainage so that its level will become lower the 
nearer it approaches the valley. If, at the base of this valley there is a stream of water 
running, this stream will be fed by the sheet; thus it is that in all valleys composed of 
permeable soils, to the right and left of the river bed, similar sheets of water are to be 
found, and these will feed it, and do not always originate from the infiltration of its 
waters, as has been said.* 

If the surface of the soil is uneven the subterranean sheet will have an undulated 
surface, reproducing in an attenuated form the imevenness of the ground. One sees 
that in such soil the depth of wells will attain its maximum in the ridges, its minimum 
in the thalwegs. 

It is this fact that has been perfectly verified in the sands of the Sahara, for instance, 
and in the plains of permeable soil in the basin of the Seine. 

So long as the depressions in the soil do not reach as far down as the sheet of water 
formed by infiltrations the latter has no possible outlet. But as soon as it comes in 
contact with the bottom of a "thalweg" it overflows in springs of a kind which are 
only found in "thalwegs." These springs, which are called "sommes" in Champagne, 
are rarely perennial; they go up and down the valleys to the length of many kilometers 
according to the oscillations of the subterranean sheet of water. In Picardy, a province 
of notably permeable soil, the springs formerly came to light at a very considerable 
distance up the river from their present point of emergence, a circumstance which is 
generally attributed to the influence of deforestation.^ 

Let us now consider the case of a stratified soil formed of strata of varying degrees of 
permeability. This is a case of most frequent and most simple occurrence. After 
having passed through the permeable soil the water will be arrested by strata that are 
impermeable, or are so in a lesser degree; if the surface of contact of the two soils arrives 
at a point intersected by a valley there will be along the whole line of intersection a 
"spring level," as it is called. If the strata of the soil are inclined in a certain direction 
the springs will be more numerous on the slope of the mountain corresponding to that 
direction. They will rise at points where the line separating the strata of the soil 
takes a turn, or else at points where this line is cut by a "thalweg" or ravine. It is 
easy to see that there may be several spring levels along the slopes of the same hill; 
it is only necessary for this that the strata become less and less permeable. Faults, 
or a thousand other geological accidents, can alter the regular course of springs. 

Nothing is more variable than the hydrological course of formations which owe their 
permeability entirely to fissures.' It generally happens that limestone and sandstone 
formations which are most cracked at the surface, are quite compact at their bases. 
Water cannot form continuous sheets in these; it concentrates therefore in pockets 
and fissures; the overflow no longer takes place in regular lines, as in other soils, but at 
veritable points of selection. Springs have often a very considerable underground 
course; they flow from the waters which have filtered through from vast plateaus; they 

* The usual direction in the movement of subterranean waters towards a river can 
be reversed, when the latter is in flood. Daubree has shown this very clearly in the 
case of the subterranean sheet of water extending along the course of the Rhine in 
Alsace. ^ De Lapparent. ' De Lapparent, op. cit., p. 199. 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 363 

are generally fed by a series of intercommunicating reservoirs. Sometimes also they 
have a considerable and remarkably regular flow. This type of spring is very common 
in the Jura; the .springs of Cuisance, Luzon, and a great number of others furnish good 
examples. The famous fountain of Vaucluse belongs to the same type. 

Space will not permit us to concern ourselves here with this last category of springs, 
which do not, properly speaking, come under the definition given above, because they 
are only waste weirs of a lake or a series of subterranean lakes. 

Special Remarks on the Action of Forests on Springs. — Do forests favor the 
feeding of springs? Formerly there was no doubt on this subject. Our fathers always 
considered forests and springs as co-partners and Buff on wrote, » "The more a coimtry 
is cleared the poorer it becomes in water." The Forest Code of 1827 only sanctions 
the general belief of the period when it authorizes the forest officials to oppose the 
clearing of forests with a view to protecting the existence of the springs.' One must 
allov/ that such an ancient, prevalent, and persistent belief constitutes a strong pre- 
sumption in favor of the utilitarian pm-pose of a forest; common opinion can only be 
the result of proved facts. 

It is only recently that doubts have been expressed on this point. Cases have been 
quoted where reafforestation has reduced the output of the springs. On the other 
hand, marshy grounds have been known to lose their superficial water in consequence of 
reafforestation, and it was concluded from this fact that the forest acted as a kind of 
pump to inhale in bulk, by means of its roots, the free water of the soil and return it 
to the air by means of the evaporation of its leaves. It might, however, be objected 
to in this last case that it is equally admissible that forests have caused superficial 
stagnant water to disappear by favoring their infiltration. 

It is an extremely difficult and dehcate matter to ascertain by direct observation the 
influence of the afforestation or deforestation of a soil on the output of a spring. It 
is in fact only by chance in many cases that we are able to recognize exactly the place 
whence the waters filter which we find oozing forth at a given point; the natural 
reservoirs may be very far removed ^° from the place where they appear above ground 
and be separated from them by valleys, heights, etc. The exact defining of the feed- 
ing basin of a spring is sometimes a very complicated problem, enough to embarrass 
the most experienced of geological specialists. The direction of the springs, too, is 
often altered by works such as the cuttings made for roads or railways, for galleries in 
mines, etc., undertaken very far away from the place where these waters become visible. 
Certain springs are so superficial that shallow ditches or simple farm drainage can 
deflect them. Finally the actual output of a spring depends especially on the rainfall 
of the current year, a factor which is always in the preponderance. A certainty could 
only exist in the case where reafforestation or clearings practiced on a large scale would 
have affected to a permanent and notable degree the output of aU the springs of a given 
region. It has often been asserted that this was the case, and was taken to prove that 
the general level of the waterflow had diminished in many parts, in proportion to the 
degree of clearing practiced locally; but it is well to recognize that published observa- 
tions are far from being entirely reliable or irrefutable." Whatever may be the diffi- 

8 Histoire de I'Acad^mie Royale de France," 1739, "M^moire sur le R^tablissement 
et la Conservation des For^ts." 

9 Art. 220. 

" To quote only one instance: The waters which have filtered through into the green 
sand of the basin of the Meuse are found again at Paris at a depth of 1,798 feet (artesian 
wells of Crenelle), or at 1,90.3 feet (wells of Passy), and this may well appear at the 
surface of other extremely remote points. 

" We should be led away too far if we reproduced here even a small part of the mass 
of observations more or less precise on this subject. A great number will be found 



364 APPENDIX 

culties of experimenting and even of making direct observations on the action of forests 
bearing upon the feeding of springs, some light has necessarily been thrown on this 
question from several directions. 

The different attempts which have been made have not all proved equally successful; 
too great a number, especially those directed toward measuring directly the quantity of 
water which passes through soil covered Avith varied vegetation, seem practically of 
very little value. It does not concern us to discuss them here; we would only say that 
all measurements and weighing performed in a laboratorj^ can do nothing toward 
solving the problem. 

It can only be solved by practical experiments on a large scale, and in the forests 
themselves. To the "Station des recherches Suisse" must be given the honor of having 
inaugurated such an experiment, thanks to the initiative of its zealous director, Pro- 
fessor Bourgeois.'^ 

M. Bourgeois has chosen in the Emmenthal a fresh green valley in the hollow of the 
northern buttresses of the Alps two httle streams, the Rappengrabli and the Sperbel- 
graben," secondary affluents of the Emme, whose upper reservoirs could not be better 
adapted to the researches he proposed to undertake. With an area of about 198 to 
247 acres each they have the appearance of almost entire circles, very clearly defined 
by a ridge in the form of a horseshoe. The general aspect of the thalweg (toward the 
southeast) is identical as well as the nature of the soil and the altitude (which varies 
from 3,21.5 to 4,035 feet in the case of the Rappengrabli, and from 2,953 to 3,937 feet 
for the Sperbelgraben). The first is almost entirely composed of pasture land and has 
only 18 per cent of forest disposed in a thin ribbon along the stream, in the thalweg; 
the second (Sperbelgraben) is covered for 91 per cent of its extent with a splendid 
irregular growth of fir. 

With the concurrence of the Federal hydrographical office, a depositary has been 
installed upon the two little streams, at the point where they issue from the almost 
enclosed basins which constitute their upper valleys, permitting their outflow to be 
measured with the utmost exactness. On the other hand rain gauges have been placed 

reported among the periodicals on forestry, especially in the "Revue des Eaux et 
Forets" (see particularly the volumes for the years 1866, 1867, 1868). A Swiss en- 
gineer, R. Lauterburg, quoted by M. Weber in the " Encyclopedie Forestiere de Lorcy," 
asserts that the destruction of forests carried out in the canton of Tessin, principally 
during the first half of the 1 9th century, must have reduced by a quarter the minimum 
outflow of the Adige at the period of low water. A similar phenomenon has been 
reported of the Po. Observations undertaken with the greatest care in Prussia by 
M. G. Hagen (quoted by M. Lehr in the "Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft") seem to 
prove conclusively that there has been a reduction in the total flow of nearly all the 
rivers which have been observed (for instance the Elbe, Moselle, Vistula, Pregel, Memel) 
in the course of the second half of the last century, but nothing proves that this phenome- 
non is connected with the deforestation which was taking place at the same time. 
M. Henry, a professor at the "ficole National des Eaux et Forets," has also coUected a 
number of interesting and well-proved facts in a communication made in 1901 to the 
"Societe des Sciences de Nancy" under the title "Le Role des Forets dans les Circula- 
tions des Eaux." "Le Journal Suisse d'ficonomie Forestiere" (1898) reports some 
observations of M. de Rothenbach which prove, in a manner which appears to be con- 
clusive, the influence of forests on the abundance of water in the springs which supply 
the city of Berne, etc. 

12 The premature death of M. Bourgeois on the 8th September, 1901, has removed 
one from whom the science of forestry had much to hope. He was under 46 
years of age. His work in the Emmenthal is being carried on by his worthy suc- 
cessor, Professor Egler; up tiU the present (July, 1903) no result of it has been 
published. 

I''' See Sheet No. 197 of the map of the "fitat-Major Suisse " at 1/25,000. The experi- 
ments took place about 21.1 miles east (airline) of Berne in the canton of the same name, 
47^1' north latitude and 5°32 (about) east longitude (of Paris). 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 365 

at various altitudes, indicating in an exact manner the quantity of rain which falls 
into the two basins." 

The observations are made daily, and were begun in 1900. 

There wiU, in the future, perhaps be occasion to simplify the depositary employed for 
the gauging of the outflow by substituting, for example, self-registering apparatuses for 
the intermittent measurements now being effected. ^^ 

It is also doubtful whether these two httle streams exactly give off (in the visible 
part of their course) all the water which filters into their basins. It is probable that 
it is so; but no one can positively assert that there does not exist some fissure of the 
subsoil where masses of water accumulate, by means of which they are lost, and escape 
observation. The installation of rain-gauges in a wooded region would also be very 
difTicult if one wished to collect aU the water drawn from the atmosphere by condensa- 
tion on the branches, water of which only a part reaches the soil by rolling down the 
truTiks, etc. This does not prevent the experiences gained in the Emmenthal from 
constituting an essay of the greatest interest, in view of the solution of a question as 
controverted as it is important. The installation of these instruments will be epoch 
making in the science of forestry, and one cannot but be grateful to Professor Bourgeois 
for taking the initiative in an experiment which we hope will not remain isolated. It 
is with impatient curiosity that we await the result of the measurement in the two little 
basins of the Bernese Emmenthal. 

In view of the difficulty which the direct study of the influence of forests on the feed- 
ing of springs presents, an attempt has been made to simplify the question by examining 
how the presence of woodlands modifies the cUfferent factors uponjwhich the abundance 
of springs depends. 

This abundance is evidently the result (Ij of the quantity of water which comes from 
the soil; (2) of the proportion of this water which, having filtered through the ground, 
has reached the subterranean sheet, of which the springs are apparently the overflow. 
Our study therefore divides itself naturally into two parts. The first concerns that 
which is known of the influence of forests on the quantity of water which reaches the 
soil. The second is devoted to the influence of forests on the proportion of that water 
which filters through to the subterranean sheet. These two elements of the question 
win form the subject of the following paragraphs. 

Influence of Forests on the Quality of Atmospheric Water which Reaches the Soil. — 
Water wliich reaches the ground is derived from three principal sources: 

1. From rains, snows, hail, etc., which, forming on the upper strata of the atmos- 
phere, are precipitated on the ground. 

2. From the condensation of vapor upon the surface of vegetation, when this is 
colder than the air itself; water thus condensed reaches the ground in a solid or in a 
hquid condition, in the latter case either in falling through the air or in rolling down 
stalks. 

" The gauging apparatuses were installed under the direction of "M. I'mgenieur en 
chief de Morlot," according to the plans of "M. I'ingenieur Epper," employed in the 
Federal service. When the outflow is weak it is directh^ measured by diverting the 
waters into a gauged basin and noting the mass of water collected in a given time; 
when the water is plentiful it is made to run through one or two or three channels, 
terminating in orifices with rectangular sections where the outflow is calculated accord- 
ing to the formula indicated by the French engineer, M. Bazin ("Annales des Fonts et 
ChauRsees, Vol. XVI, ISS8, and XIX, 1890), by estimating the bulk of the sheet of 
water passing on to the waste weir. 

1^ Since our first visit to the Emmenthal in 1900 the wish expressed above has been 
gratified. In April, 1903, self-registering apparatuses have been installed on the two 
streams; at the same time the apparatuses for gauging the snow and rainfall in their 
basins have been improved. 



366 APPENDIX 

3. From condensation taking place on the superficial parts of the soil itself, upon 
its covering of dead leaves, where the ground is wooded. 

We will begin by discussing this last source of the feeding of the soil by water, not 
because it is without importance, but because its relative importance has not yet been 
discovered. ^^ 

' In the previous chapter it has been shown in detail, that the presence of forests 
increases the rainfall in a very marked degree. 

This result has been incontestably obtained, at least in the case (, unique it is true) " 
noted at the Research Station of Nancy. During 33 consecutive years, without any 
divergences, it has been proved by observation that, while in the center of the forest of 
Haye (17,297 acres of beech, hornbeam, and oak) there is a rainfall of 33.4 inches an- 
nually in the open, on a piece of ground cleared for about 5 acres, while on the other 
hand only 31.4 inches fall on the borders of the forest, and 25.6 on a similar piece of 
ground some distance off; and it is to be remembered that this difference in the rainfall 
occurs in the same ratio, each year at every season, whatever may be the direction of 
the winds, and is only slightly altered without being reversed by the total amount of 
rainfall during the year. 

The measurements of M. Fautrat, also given above; those of M. de Pons in the forest 
of Trongais (Allier) although less reUable because they extend over a smaller period of 
years; as well as many others carried out in Germany, Austria, and Russia, in Anglo- 
India, etc., lead one to believe that this phenomenon is common to all countries. 

If the summits of wooded masses are more bedewed than the neighboring fieldsi 
does the same hold good for the soil in a forest? 

Here, incontrovertible observations are much more rare. 

It is not enough in fact, to place a rain gauge under the trees in order to arrive at 
even an approximate idea of the quantity of water which reaches the soil of the forest. 
As Mathieu already observed 30 years ago, the quantity of water collected will vary 
in a singular degree, according as one puts the rain gauge near the trunk sheltered under 
the network of big branches, or under a gap in the leafage of the summits, or under the 
center of a branch, or at the extremity of this same branch which will drain into it 
like a gutter, in emptying into it all the water or all the snow fallen on its surface, and 
upon that of the upper branches. M. Boppe ^^ has shown that raui gauges placed under 
the same tree, at very short distances from one another collect quantities of water 
varying to an unbelievable degree. 

Finally a procedure such as this does not take into account the quantity of water 
which reaches the soil by running down stalks, and whose proportion may be 15 to 20 
per cent, perhaps even more of the annual rainfall, even if this water is derived from 
rain, or is directly drawn from the atmosphere by means of condensation on leaves or 
on stalks. 

It is for this reason that no mention will be made here of the results obtained in 
France or abroad by means of ordinary rain-gauges placed under trees. The only 

i^Giseler, quoted by M. Ney ("Der Wald und die Quellbildung," Metz, 1901), has 
proved by experiment that in a tube of glass maintained at 0° c, and placed in a room 
where the temperature remained uniformly equal to — 4, 5 c. a quantity of water was 
condensed in one 3'ear equal to a rainfall of 13.8 inches. It is superfluous to remark 
that this ex'periment as well as many others effected in laboratories in the cause of 
agronomy have no real value. Things happen entirely differently in nature, than in 
the conditions rendered obligatory for the purposes of experiment. 

1^ Since January 1, 1903, new experiments have been undertaken upon our initiative 
at different points of the French Vosges, with a view to verifying the generaUty of the 
facts observed in the neighborhood of Nancy. 

" " Regenmessungen unter Baumkronen," 11th number of the " Mitteilungen 
aus dem forstlichen Versuchewesen Oesterreichs," Vienna, 1896. 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 



367 



really reliable data are those obtained by means of the simple and reliable depositary 
invented by Mathieu in 1867, which has been retained at the Research Station of Nancy, 
during 32 years of observations. Here is the description of it, taken from the inventor 
himself: 1' 

"La Station des Cinq-Tranchees, situated about 5 miles to the west of the town of 
Nancy, at a height of 1,247 feet, is situated in the midst of a large wooded plateau, 
'La Haye,' which the limestone strata form of the lower oolith. Two rain-gauges are 
placed there; one in the middle of the wood, under a polewood of beeches and horn- 
beams, moderately compact, of about 40 years of age in 1866. The other, at a short 
distance from the preceding, is in the middle of an open space of about 5 acres, adjoining 
the ' Maison Forestiere des Cinq-Tranchees.' 

"The quantity of rain water which a gauge receives, when placed in a forest, varies 
with the position of the instrument in dense foliage or in openings. The forest rain- 
gauge is especially constructed to avoid this source of possible mismeasurement; it is 
provided with a receptacle of large dimensions, of which the circular surface is exactly 
equal to the projection of the top of one of the poles of the clump.^" The stem of one 
of these passes through the center, and is surrounded by a kind of collar; thanks to this 
arrangement, the water which runs down the trunk can be collected, be it the result of 
prolonged rainfall, or of a dense mist, or the effect of a thaw in producing the melting 
of snow, or of hoar frost on the branches." 

These observations began in 1867 and were continued until 1898 when an accident 
happening to one of the instruments prevented them from being carried on longer. 
They embrace, however, a period of 32 years. 

The following table gives a resume of the results obtained: ^i 

SUMMARY OF MONTHLY AVERAGES OF RAINFALL OUTSIDE AND 

INSIDE THE FOREST 



Months 


Average rainfall in inches outside 
the forest 


Average rainfall in inches inside 
the forest 


Per cent of 

rainfall 

actually 

received 

by forest 

soil 




1867-77 


1878-88 


1889-98 


1867-98 


1867-77 


1878-88 


1889-98 


1867-98 


May-October*. . . 
November-April . 


16.7 
14.9 


20.2 
15.2 


19.2 
13.8 


18.7 
14.6 


14.8 
14.0 


17.8 
14.9 


17.2 
13.5 


16.6 
14.2 


88.8 
96.9 


Totals for year.. 


31.6 


35.4 


33.0 


33.3 


28.8 


32.7 


30.7 


30.8 


92.4 



The figures for the individual months have been omitted and the data rearranged. 



A comparison of the foregoing figures will show us that, for a certain number of 
months, especially in winter, the rain-gauge placed under cover collects the greatest 

19 "Meteorologie Comparee Agricole et Forestiere; rapport a M. le sous-secretaire 
d'fitat, etc.," of 25 February, 1878, p. 4. In this report, published by the "Imprimeri, 
National," Mathieu gives an account of the results of the first eleven years of observa- 
tions. 

2" This pole was a young hornbeam of about 41 years of age at the beginning of the 
experiments, of a regular shape and with well crested top. 

21 This table is borrowed from the work by M. de Bouville already quoted: "Observa- 
tions de meteorologie . . . de la Station de Recherches de fficole National des 
Eaux et Forfits," Paris, 1901. 



368 



APPENDIX 



quantity of water. A similar fact had already been observed in 187S and 1890 in the 
reports published by Mathieu and M. Bartet -^ on the results obtained in those years by 
the "Station de recherches" of Nancy. 

This is the more instructive, inasmuch as it is the winter rains which are the most 
important from the point of view of the feeding of springs. 

The fact is very naturally explained by the condensation of aqueous vapor on the 
considerable surface presented by the crests of forest trees.^^ 

At all S(?asons of tlie year and all hours of the day the trees are, in fact, colder than 
the surrounding atmosphere. Nevertheless the difference is greater in summer than 
in winter, and during the day rather than at night. It is also greater at the base of the 
trunk than among the branches. 

Here are some figures on the subject. The Swiss observations give results recorded 
on an average of 12 years; those in Bavaria were undertaken during two years only: 

DIFFERENCES (IN CENTIGRADE DEGREES) BETWEEN THE TEM- 
PERATURE OF THE TREES * AND SURROUNDING AIR 



Winter 



Larch (near Interlaken) 

Spruce (near Berne) 

Beech (near Porrentruy) 

Miscellaneous species (Bavaria) | 



Spring 


Summer 


Autumn 


2.1 


3.3 


1.0 


3.4 


4.1 


2.2 


1.5 


3.2 


1.5 


1.3 


1.7 


0.7 


0.8 


1.2 


0.4 



0.4 
0.9 
0.3 
1.3 
1.4 



* In the Swiss experiments the temperature of the tree was taken at breast-height, 
while in Bavaria it was in the branches of the crown. 



These reports suffice to give us the key to the important phenomenon noted above. 
Trees with considerably spreading crowns form very excellent condensers of vapor 
from atmospheric water which they conduct to the soil in a liquid condition; this process 
is naturally more marked at the beginning and end of winter, periods when the atmos- 
phere of our latitudes, especialh^ in forests, is very near the point of .saturation. I'he 
slightest lowering of the temperature is then sufficient to produce condensation. 

In conclusion, the results obtained by the ol>servations conducted at Cinq-Tranchees 
can be summed up in the following manner: Of a hundred millimeters (3.94 inches) of 
atmospheric water, the instrument placed under shelter of the crest of a young horn- 
beam only received in an average year 92 m.m. 4 (3.64 inches); therefore 7 m.m. 6 
(0.299 inch) were retained b}^ the crown a balance produced by the amount of condensa- 
tion from branches and the top of the trunk. 

^ " Met^orologie Comparce, Agricole et Forestiere. . . . Observations faites a 
la Station de Recherches de I'ficole National Forestiere," published by M. E. Bartet, 
Paris, 1890 ("Bulletin du Ministere de I'Agriculture"). 

-' It happens sometimes that a considerable quantity of water is supplied to the 
forest soil in a very short period of time. This occurred in .January, 1882. The east 
wind accompanied by fog had deposited such a quantity of hoar frost on the trees that 
a great number of branches were broken by the weight of it. This first took the form of 
i(!icles ten centimeters in length. A twig covered with them, cut off with great care, 
weighed 550 grams; relieved of its burden, it only weighed 70 grams ("Bulletin de la 
Commission Metlorologique de Meurthe-et-Moselle"). This frost in melting on January 
17 was equal to a rainfall of 7. m.m. 4 according to the rain-gauge under the trees at 
Cinq-Tranchees. In January, 1879, a branch of birch from the forest of Fontainebleau, 
weighed by M. Croizette-Desnoyers, covered with a thick crust of rime, turned the 
scales at 700 grams. Weighed again after the frost had melted, the result given was 
only 50 grams. 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 369 

The action of the forest besides differs appreciably at diflfercnt seasons of the year. 

In winter the trees arc denuded, although at that period they are more than ever 
favorable to the condensation of atmospheric vapors. Also once in every three times 
almost the gauge under the trees is the fullest, and this one contains on an average 
96.9 per cent of the water fallen during the months from November to April — almost all 
of it. 

The condensation by the tree crests suffices therefore to compensate almost entirely 
for the loss due to the adherence of a part of the water fallen upon the trees. 

During the summer, on the contrary, the branches covered with foliage intercept the 
rain more efficaciously. If one compares the maximum rainfall occurring in the months 
from May to October on the open ground, and under the trees, respectively, one finds 
that they are equal to the numbers 100 and 88.8. 

If the proportions in which the forest soil is watered vary according to the season, 
they ought therefore to be somewhat different according to the age and density of the 
plantations. In fact, calculating by averages of three successive periods approximately 
equal, and no longer by the total period during which observations have been made, it 
has been ascertained that under the trees in summer 89.1 per cent, 88 per cent, and 
89.4 per cent of the quantity of water precipitated bj' atmospheric water have been 
collected. The portion retained by the crowns of trees increases from 1867 to 1888 at 
the same time as does that under cover, owing to the growth of the tree under observa- 
tion from 40 to 62 years old. It then diminishes as a result of the gradual lightening of 
the foliage coinciding with the decline of the vegetation, which .shows itself in the 
hornbeam sprouts in the forest of Haye about every 60 to 70 years under ordinary 
conditions. 

Let us quote a few figures taken from abroad relative to the proportion of rain inter- 
cepted by the tree tops. 

The absolute quantity of water that adheres to the trees and returns to the atmosphere 
by evaporation is regular for the same tree, whatever may be the duration of the rain- 
fall, but evaporation is sufficient to absorb the rainfall entirely, especially in summer, if 
the rain is of short duration, while it will only absorb a steadily decreasing quantity in 
prcjportion to the increase in the duration of the rainfall. 

The loss of water owing to shelter is therefore very variable according to the local 
distribution of rains. 

The same applies to different species of trees. By placing a great number of rain 
gauges under the crown of the same tree at varying distances from the trunk, M. Boppe 
has tried to obtain an average of the quantity of water which passes directly through 
the tree tops. He has then measured separately the water running down the trunks. 
Combining these results wth those obtained by himself, M. Ney ^ has arrived at the 
conclusion that the loss due to adherence to the crowns is: 15 per cent of the annual rain- 
fall for the beech tree; 20 per cent for Scotch pine; 3.3 per cent for spruce. 

If one considers the water rainfall separately, the only important one for the feeding 
of springs, one ascertains according to the same author: 

That the crowns of beech trees retain 7 per cent, those of pines 15 per cent, and 
those of lower spruce pines 20 per cent. This last figure should be still in relation to the 
surplus of rain acquired by the presence of forests, according to French experiments. 

The figures given by M. Ney do not take into account the water supplied by the tree 
crowns through the process of condensation, and moreover are only based on a small 
mmil)er of measurements. 

It remains now to draw conclusions from all the preceding data, relative to the feeding 
of springs.^^ The question to l)e resolved is as follows: Is the ground under cover of 

^ Op. cit., p. 10. 25 De BouvHle, op. cit. 



370 



APPENDIX 



the forest better watered than cultivated ground? To understand the matter rightly 
it is sufficient to compare the records of the rain gauges installed under the trees at 
Cinq-Tranchees with those of the instrument established at Amance-la-Bouzule. 

The following table has that object in view by giving the records for the whole period 
during which they were kept, and also separately for summer and winter and the entire 
year. 

A comparison between the quantity of rain water which reaches the ground in an 
open agricultural region on the one hand, and on the other that which reaches the ground 
in a forest under shelter of the trees. (Summary only is given for the years 1867-1898.) 





May-October 


November-April 


Entire year 




Forested 


Open 


Forested 


Open 


Forested 


Open 


Yearly averages in 
inches of rainfall* .... 


16.6 


14.3 


14.2 


11.2 


30.8 


25.5 



* The forest measurements were at Les Cinq-Tranchees and those on agricultural 
land at Amance-la-Bouzule. 

An examination of the figures demonstrates that the ground of the forest of Haye, at 
the center, and under cover of its trees, is always better watered than the neighboring 
plains. The difference is particularly marked in winter; it diminishes in summer by 
reason of the fohage. In an average year only 82 per cent was collected at Amance-la- 
Bouzule of the quantity of rain water collected under the trees at Cinq-Tranchees, the 
proportion being 86.4 per cent for the months from May to October, and 78.7 per cent 
only for those from September to April. 

The conclusions drawn from the French reports, however, call for a few remarks. 

The forest rain-gauge indicates the loss resulting to the soil, from the adherence of a 
part of the atmospheric waters to the foliage; all that it receives arrives at the soil intact. 
It is not the same with the rain gauge installed on a cultivated field. The surface of 
this field is covered with a thick carpet of grasses or vegetables which retain a consider- 
able portion of the fallen rain water, and allow it to evaporate in the air exactly as do the 
leaves of trees.^^ 

On the other hand the water condensed by contact with the carpet of vegetation has 
not been measured either; it is true it must be a very small quantity comparatively, 
because the carpet of vegetation often fails in cultivated fields during autumn and 
winter. One may infer that this quantity of water is comparable (somewhat less as far 
as one can judge) to that which is condensed by contact with dead leaves on the forest 
soil. 

It appears, therefore, that these remarks will further strengthen the conclusions favor- 
able to the forest, will become, in fact, valuable a fortiori. Taking into consideration the 
actual knowledge to hand, it must be admitted the ground covered by forests in leaf 
receives more water from the atmosphere than ground under cultivation; the difference 
can be considerable and reach to 20 to 25 per cent of the rainfall in winter, a season which 
alone supplies infiltrated waters. 

It would appear that the same holds good in the case of pine forests, especially in 

'^^ It has been calculated (M. Ney, "der Wald und die Quellen," Tubingen, 1894, p. 30) 
that the crop of a field of wheat would have a growing surface of 32,370 square yards to 
the acre, that of an uncultivated field would have 22,006 square yards, that of a field of 
clover 27,190, of a field of potatoes 24,876. The surface of a well developed forest of 
beech trees of average age would be 39,707 square yards. 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 371 

\vinter. The fact may be accepted as almost certain in the case of Scotch pine and larch, 
and it is probable even of the spruce, the tree of our country whose foliage is the thickest. 
Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Water. — In the preceding paragraph 
the influence of conditions on the quantity of water which reaches the soil has been 
shown. It remains for us now to examine how forests modify the conchtions of the 
feeding of springs, in working on the deep infiltration of the water as far as the sub- 
terranean sheet, of which springs constitute the overflow. 

Of the water reaching the ground, one part runs along the surface and arrives directly 
at the water courses in the form of streams. Those waters which run along the sur- 
face without penetrating into the soil are called "wild waters" — and "coefficient in 
surface flow," is the term (le nombre) which expresses their relative importance. 

A second part returns directly to the atmosphere, in a gaseous condition, as a result 
of the phenomenon of physical evaporation. 

A third part, after having penetrated the superficial strata of the soil, is extracted 
from it by suction of roots which carry it into the body of the plants. This water is 
partially utilized in forming vegetable tissues, but the greater part returns to the atmos- 
phere in gaseous form by the stomata of leaves, after having brought into the latter 
the mineral elements necessary to the growth of the plant. This important phenomenon 
is called physiological evaporation; it carries away from the soil considerable quantities 
of water which have already penetrated to greater or lesser depths according to the 
dimensions of the vegetation. One understands in fact that the zone thus drained 
is quite near to the surface in the case of grass or cereals with superficial roots, while 
it can be fairly deep in the case of forests whose roots penetrate very far down in 
permeable soils. 

Lastly, a fourth part having penetrated, thanks to the permeability of the soil, 
manages to pass through the entire depth of the region where roots can inhale, or from 
which, by means of capillary action, it can raise itself into the region where the roots 
are active. It penetrates deeper and deeper into the soU until, encountering the obstacle 
of an impermeable stratum, it accumulates and founds a subterranean sheet of free 
water. It is this sheet which dispenses itself outwards when the conditions stated 
in Paragraph I of this chapter have been fulfilled. If the lie of the ground is such 
that the water cannot reach the open air, the subterranean sheet is then exploited 
by means of wells, and it has been proposed ^^ to call the sheet nearest to the surface a 
"phreatic sheet," because it is this one that feeds the weUs, their depth being naturally 
limited to the level of the upper part of the highest subterranean sheet, and not gener- 
ally getting beyond it even when this level sinks. 

Before proceeding further, it is necessary to establish an essential distinction between 
springs in mountainous regions and those in a country of plains. 

In the mountains the surface flow plays such an important part in the question we 
are about to consider that we need only concern ourselves with this phenomenon, after 
setting aside those of evaporation and permeabihty. The influence of the loss due 
to superficial running waters ("wild waters") surpasses all others. This special and 
most simple case is the only one upon which one can formulate absolutely certain con- 
clusions. It is, moreover, much the most important; springs are infinitely more numer- 
ous, abundant, and useful in the mountains than in the plains. Springs in the plains 
are either fed by waters which have filtered down from the mountains or else they have 
virtually no influence on the regular course of waters on account of their feeble outflow. 
The rainfall in low regions is, in fact, too feeble, after the levy made on it by agricultural 
vegetation generally speaking, to aUow remaining a sufficient proportion to feed the 
springs. Often indeed the soil of the plains bears crops,^ which, in order to develop, 

" Daubree "Les Eaux Souterraines," Vol. I, p. 19 (Paris, Dunod, pub., 1887). 



372 APPENDIX 

absorb more water than the local fall produces, the balance being provided by natural 
or artificial irrigation by means of the surplus of higher regions. 

In the plains, on the contrary, surface flow does not exist, and the feeding of the 
subterranean sheet depends upon the permeability of the soil and upon evaporation. 

The Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Water in Mountains. — The pro- 
portion of the surface flow increases according to the declivity, and according to 
the greater or less rapidity with which rain falls or snow melts on the slopes. It can 
become very great. M. Imbeaux,^^ in a study on the course of the Danube, has dis- 
covered "during the three exceptional floods of Oct. 27, 1882; Oct., 1886, and Nov., 
1886, that the proportion of surface flow at Mirabeau was from 0.33 to 0.39 and 0.42, 
that is to say, more than a third of the rainfall; it fell to 0.27 during lesser floods, and 
even to 0.23 and 0.18 for average and small floods, thus demonstrating that the law 
of its decrease is parallel with that of the intensity of the rainfall." Of the Danube at 
Vienna the Central Hydrographic Office of Vienna has discovered, in applying the 
same method, 42.1 per cent for the period from July 28 to Aug. 14, 1897 .^^ 

Other authors (Demontzey and M. Ney) have proved that the proportion of surface 
flow can reach 40 to 50 per cent of the rainfall on wooded slopes. Demontzey even 
quotes a case where it has reached three-quarters of the water brought by a storm of 
rain into the bed of a torrent, extending over more than 1,977 acres. 

The action of forests on the reduction of "wild waters" is so well known, so univer- 
sally recognized, that to insist upon it has become commonplace. We will only recall 
that it results principally from: (a) the fact that, thanks to the obstacle caused by 
mountain tops, water reaches the soU with hardly any celerity; (b) that the rainfall, 
other things being equal, is more frequent and less violent in forests, and above all the 
melting of snows is much less rapid, as this process often lasts a fortnight or even a 
month longer in the forest than in open ground ; (c) that the obstacle offered to the course 
of the water by stalks and the roots of trees, and lastly the absorption of a considerable 
quantity of water by mosses or dead leaves covering the soil. It has been calculated 
that such coverings of dead leaves or moss retain by their hygroscopicity a rainfall of 
2.91 inches of depth falling in one day before allowing anything to run off by surface 
flow.'" 

Even when the covering is saturated, it only allows the water to escape drop by 
drop, so that the soil is able to imbibe the whole of it, to the great benefit of the sub- 
terranean sheet. One may say that the process of surface flow is almost entirely 
suppressed on wooded slopes in good conditions where the covering of the soil is left 
alone. 

We covdd not better sum up the subject of the action of forests on the feeding of 
springs in mountainous districts than by quoting so great an authority as Professor 
Henry:'! "Wooded mountains attract rain; it is there that precipitations from the 
atmosphere attain their maximum; it is there that great reservoirs of water are found; 

2^ Essai-Programme d'Hydrologie, by Dr. Imbeaux, ingenieur des Fonts et Chaus- 
sees. Published in the Zeitschrift fur Gewasserkunde, 1898 and 1899. (Quotation 
borrowed from M. Henry.) 

2'' Die Hochwasser — Katastrophe des Jahres, 1897, in Oesterreich. . . . Beit- 
rage zur Hydrographie Oesterreichs. Published by the K. K. Hydrographischer 
Central Bureau of Vienna, II bulletin, 1898. 

30 Ebermayer ("Die gesammte Lehre der Walstreu," Berlin, 1876, pp. 177 to 181) 
shows that moss can retain in suspension 2.8 times its weight in water. The sphagnums 
and species of hypnums such as N. loreum can absorb up to 4.5 kilograms of water by 
the square meter of ground where it grows. Dead beech leaves retain about 2.3 times 
that of pine or spruce, 1.2 times their weight in water. See also M. Ney's work, "Der 
Wald und die Quellen," p. 70 (Tubingen, 1894). 

31 Communication made to the "Congres International de Sylviculture a Paris en 
1900," p. 327 of the " Compte-rendu Official." 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 373 

it is there that nearly all springs are concentrated. Forests existing on mountains, 
notably on those whose aspect is perpendicular to those of moist winds, cause the pre- 
cipitation of the greatest quantity of aqueous vapor which they contain. It is enough 
to cast a glance at a hydrographic map to be convinced of this fact. Bare, denuded 
mountains have only a very feeble action in this respect; the countries bordering on the 
Adriatic as well as on a part of the Mediterranean, which are renowned for their dry- 
ness, show this in a very striking manner. Deprived of forests, these mountains lack 
the means of cooling the air and drawing to themselves in consequence the vaporous 
precipitations it contains. The denuded soil, which the sun penetrates with intense 
heat on those parts exposed to the west and the southwest, does not certainly possess 
this property." 

"A second distinction consists in the enormous diminution in the proportion of 
surface flow on wooded mountains, compared with the same slopes when they are 
denuded. . . . The water, instead of precipitating itself into the thalweg and caus- 
ing thereby sudden and dangerous inundations, penetrates slowly through the covering 
and into the soil which it soaks to a great depth. Therefore it is unquestionable, and 
we believe an uncontested fact, that mountain forests are favorable generally to the 
production of springs." 

There is a stronger reason still for this being the case when mountain forests grow 
in a hot climate where physical evaporation is considerable. 

The Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Waters in the Plains. — The 
influence of the surface flow is complete in the case of forests in the plains. There 
the feeding of the subterranean sheet will depend only on physiological evaporation 
and on the permeability of the soil. Let us first examine the action of forests on this 
permeability of the soU. 

Forest soil in good condition is naturally light. The roots of trees penetrate deeply 
into it, sometimes to a depth of 10 and 13 feet and more; in swelling out they produce 
the effect of wedges which divide the soil mechanically. When the trees have been 
felled the roots decompose and their place is taken by a network of channels filled with 
hygroscopic matter, which directly conducts the water to considerable depth. Along 
the roots of trees under foot, especially near the stem between the soil and the bark, 
there exist empty spaces which are caused by the swaying of the tree when shaken by 
the wind; rain water, which has run along the stem, arrives directly, one might say 
instantaneously, by means of these at the soil. Lastly, forest vegetation is favorable 
to the division of the soil through the action of earthworms. 

In winter, the temperature of the forest soil is appreciably higher than that of the 
open ground. It often results from this that during the cold season the rainfall or 
melting snow acts upon a frozen surface, which has become impenetrable at the surface, in 
such a manner that all the water disappears in surface flow. In the forest, the soil which 
is less cold need not necessarily be frozen, and can therefore absorb the fallen water. 

According to all the evidence collected, physical evaporation of the water of the soil 
is less under trees than on an agricultural soil. The forest covers the ground with a 
double protective screen; first the covering of dead leaves, an eminently hygroscopic 
substance, and in consequence always cool, which, superimposed immediately on the 
ground, opposes evaporation with great energy. Higher up, the crown, often very dense, 
offers its maximum density in summer, at a period when evaporation is greatest. The 
temperature of the air is also lower under the trees than outside, especially in summer. 
This forms a powerful impediment to evaporation. The lowest temperature of the 
forest soil in summer acts again in the same way. 

Finally, evaporation is much favored in a flat country by the wind, which is con- 
tniually renewing the strata of the air, saturated by direct contact with the soil. 



374 APPENDIX 

An attempt has been made to measure the comparative importance of evaporation 
beneath the trees and outside of them by ascertaining the quantity of Uquid lost from 
receptacles full of water placed under cover and in the open fields. Under these condi- 
tions two to five times, in certain cases eight times, but on an average three times, 
more water is evaporated in the open country than under the trees. But these experi- 
ments are of little value even when the receptacles of water are replaced by impene- 
trable chests full of earth; the conditions under which the experiments are made being 
too far removed from natural conditions.^^ 

It remains for us now to compare the forest with land under cultivation from the 
point of view of the quantity of water drawn off from the soil by the vegetation. 

To tell the truth, we are absolutely ignorant of the quantity of water necessary to 
the production of agricultural or forest crops. One observer, Wollny,^^ undertook in 
1879 and 1880 direct measurements of the quantities of water consumed by various 
plants (barley, oats, red clover, grass, rye, etc.) which he had sown in especially pre- 
pared boxes without drainage. At the beginning of the experiment he had ascertained 
the quantity of water contained in the soil of the boxes; by adding to this the same 
quantity of water as would be furnished under natural conditions lasting over a similar 
period of time, either by rain or by dew, and by removing from the bottom of the boxes 
all that filtered through the earth, and which he carefully collected, the amount of 
water consumed was obtained. In reahty the quantities measured are superior to 
this consumption for they include, in addition, that which has been lost by evaporation 
from the soil, or by evaporation of the water remaining adherent to leaves and stalks. 
The experiments of Wollny were extended over 105 to 155 days of the season of growth. 

The consumption of water was on an average 38 million pounds to the acre, the maxi- 
mum figure being furnished by the clover which reached 47 miUion. These figures 
represent an average consumption per acre per day during the growing season of about 
18 to 19 cubic yards. 

In 1870 and 1871 an older writer, Risler,^'* discovered that the average daily con- 
sumption per acre during the season of growth was 27 cubic yards for Luzern and 
fields generally, 23 for oats, 12 for rye, etc., and on an average 17 for cultivated vege- 
tables, whUe it would only be 4.2 cubic yards for the fir tree and S.ljfor the oak. It is 
much to be regretted that we have no means of judging of the value of these figures, 
as we do not know how they were obtained. 

M. Ney, by combining the figures of Wollny and of Risler, calculates ^^ that field 
vegetables in general consume 2,093 cubic yards of water per acre during the growing 
season. 

An Austrian experimenter, V. Hohnel, has directly measured the quantity of aqueous 
vapor emitted by the leaves of different trees from June 1 to October 1. During that 
period he found that the leaves of the several species emitted the following percentages 
of their own weight in aqueous vapor: Birch, 68 per cent; ash, 57; hornbeam, 56; beech, 
47; oak, 28; spruce pine, 6; Scotch pine, 6; fir tree, 3. 

With these data for basis, M. Ney ^^ calculates that the consumption of water per 

^^ For the French experiments see M. de Bouville, op. cit., pp. 25 et seq. For those 
carried out in Switzerland consult the " Mitteilungen" of the Research Station of Zurich. 
For the German observations see the official accounts published by M. Miittrich on the 
work of the Research Stations; a resume of the results is to be found reproduced by 
M. Weber in the "Encyclopedic Forestiere de Lorey." 

^^ "Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agricultur — Physik, Vol. XII, p. 27. 

3^ The experiments of Risler are only known by the quotations made by Wollny in 
the work mentioned previously, and we are ignorant of the methods pursued by this 
experimenter. 

36 "Der Wald und die Quellen," p. 74. 

36 Op. cit., p. 75. 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 375 

acre during the season of growth would be 24,112,000 pounds for beech (5.6 yards 
per diem); 18,568,000 pounds for spruce pine (47 yards per diem); 6,424,000 pounds 
for Scotch pine (1.6 yards per diem). 

It is to be remarked that these quantities do not include the water incorporated in 
the tissues of the trees for the purposes of their growth, but only that emitted by evapora- 
tion from leaves." 

Other figures have })een published by Th. Hartig, V. Hohnel and Wollny; they differ 
sometimes so much from those quoted above that one is necessarily very sceptical as to 
the value of the results obtained. As M. Henry remarks very justly: ^^ "If it is easy 
to determine, by means of weighing, the evaporation on a sapUng in a pot, or of a square 
of young forest trees, of grass or corn; if one can calculate, strictly speaking, according 
to those results, without fear of too great discrepancies the evaporation on an acre 
covered with grass, with corn, or young forest trees of equal height, ^^ it is far too rash 
to apply the results obtained by experiments on an isolated sapling grown in a 
pot to a forest comprising many tangled and superimposed stages of growth, whose 
leaves giving more or less shade are doing their work with different degrees of 
intensity." 

In the present condition of science it is not therefore possible to determine by con- 
trast in a sufficiently precise manner the difference between the volume of water under 
the trees and in the open which goes to feed the subterranean sheets. 

In view of the great interest this question presents, and of the diversity of opinions 
on the subject, the greatest efforts have been made in an indirect manner to arrive at a 
clear idea of the action of clumps of trees on the feeding of the subterranean sheet. 

A primary series of researches has been undertaken with a view to determine com- 
paratively the quantity of water which filters through a stratum of earth enclosed in 
a box without drainage, its surface being covered with different kinds of plants. 

It has proved that the bare earth allows more water to pass than that which is 
covered with vegetation, dead leaves, moss, etc. This is almost the only definite result 
obtained, and even this is controvertible. We do not lay much stress on these experi- 
ments which, it would seem, can give us no definite information as to what occurs under 
natural conditions.^° 

An attempt has been made to measure directly the quantity of water contained in the 
soil under the trees and in the open at different depths. 

Experiments undertaken in Germany *^ and in Russia have brought to light the 
following facts which appear to be properly estaVjlished : 

The humidity of forest soil is very great at the surface, but diminishes rapidly to a 
depth varying in degree which does not go beyond 31.5 inches under plantations of 
spruce pine, according to Ebermayer, and which reaches a depth of 10 or 13 feet, 
according to Russian experiments. Below this level the amount of water keeps on 
increasing with the depth. There exists in the ground, therefore, a dry zone more or 

'^ The quantity of water remaining annually in the tissues of trees may be estimated 
at 2,640 pounds per acre. 

^* "Annales de la Science Agronomique," 2nd Series, 4th year, 1898, pp. 20 et seq. 

^' It is doubtful if even this is admissible. 

^° For the measurements made in Switzerland see Bulletin IV of the "Mitteilungen" 
of the Research Station of Zurich; for the Bavarian works, see the various publications 
of M. Ebermayer, etc. 

*i"Einfluss des Waldes," etc., an article by M. Ebermayer which appeared in the 
January 1888 number of the "Allgemeine Forst und Jagd Zeitung." A good trans- 
lation has bec!n published by M. Reuss in the first volume of the "Annales de la Science 
Agronomique," 1889. A complete resume of all the works published up till then is 
inserted in the account of the "Congres International de Sylviculture a Paris en 1900," 
pp. 328 et seq. (Communication byiM. Henry to this Congress). 



376 APPENDIX 

less thick and more or less deep, lying between the humid region of the surface and 
the humid region below. 

One sees there, in a very clear fashion, the influence of the absorption of water by 
roots of plants in the region where they are active, or in that immediately below where 
the water can raise itself by capillary action after drying up the superior stratum.''^ 
This is a general fact for all ground covered with living plants; they i)resent a dry 
stratum more or less removed from the surface, according to the depth of the root 
system of vegetation above. This depth being greater in the case of forest vegetation 
than in others, it is clearly to be seen that at a similar level, within certain limits, the 
soil of the forest will be poorer in water than an agricultural soil.''' It has been con- 
cluded from this that the forest absorbed more water by its vegetation than other 
species of culture, and thus was harmful to the feeding of i)hreatic sheets of water. 

It must be admitted that there is no evident and necessary connection between the 
humidity of the soil in its superficial parts and the alimentation of the subterranean 
sheet. Other things being equal, the latter depends not so much on the degree of 
dampness of the soil as upon its })ernieability. A stratum of coarse sand will allow 
rain water to filter through rapidly, while a fine clay will keep it stagnant at the sur- 
face and give it over to evaporation. And, nevertheless, the sand will be dry, while 
the clay will always contain a quantity of hygroscopic water. 

An extremely interesting fact, which will i)erhaps throw some light on the relation 
of the wooded condition of the surface with the feeding of phreatic waters, has been 
quite recently l)rought forward. We think we ought to dwell on this with some detail, 
borrowing what follows from the last {)ublications of our learned colleague, M. Henry .''^ 

The Imperial Free I'^cononiic Society of St. Petersburg undertook a series of re- 
searches into sul)terranean hydrology in the forests of the steppes of Russia, the director- 
ship of which was confided to M. Ototzky, curator of the Mineralogical Museum at 
St. Petersburg. 

From borings effected in the forest of Chipoi'f (province of Voronez) and in the Black 

*- The depth of the system of our large tree s{)ecies is much greater than has been 
generally supposed. The tempest of February 1, 1902, having torn up by their roots 
a multitude of tir trees of all ages in the Vosges, we took advantage of this opportunity 
to ascertain the depth to which the roots, thus rendered visible, had penetrated the 
Vosges sandstone formation. It varied from 5 to 11.5 feet. If one takes into account 
that the extremities of the roots were still remaining in the soil, one can realize that 
these trees were deriving nourishment from a stratum which must extend to a depth of 
13 and perhaps of 16 feet. 

''3 These researches of a very delicate nature only meet with reliable results when 
they are conducted simultaneously for a very long period of time under the trees and 
in the open. If one observes the soil after heavy rain one sees it saturated at the surface 
to a greater or lesser depth. The rain having ceased, the free surface water sinks 
down gradually into the soil under the action of its weight, saturating always a deeper 
and deeper zone, above which the ground has become dry, until it comes in contact 
with the phreatic sheet of water of which it raises the level. It is conceivable that 
very varying amounts of water in the soil, at one particular season and depth, have to 
be accounted for, according to the proximity and abundance of the latest rainfall, 
that is to say, according to fortuitous circumstances which, up till now, observers 
do not seem to have taken into account. 

" M. E. Henry, [)rofessor of the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets," was the first 
to draw attenticni to the Russian borings, the results of which, up till then, had been 
unnoticed both in France and Germany. He gave an account of these in a series of 
articles, one after the other, from 1S97 and February, 1898 (Annales de la Science 
Agronomique), until 1903. In his article of 1903 M. Henry narrates for the first time 
the complete result of liis own researches undertaken in the forest of Moudon. The 
few pages which M. Ebermayer devotes to the subject in his pubHcation dated 1900 
(Einfluss der W'alder auf das Gumdwasser) only reproduce, almost word for word, 
M. Henry's report of 1898. 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 377 

Forest (province of Cherson), M. Ototzky was led, since 1897, to formulate this theory, 
that, all physico-geographical conditions being equal, the level of phreatic waters in the 
forests of the region of the steppes is lower than in neighboring open spaces. In support 
of these unexpected conclusions M. Ototzky published the results of a series of sound- 
ings, of which some it is true are open to objection as proof positive of his theories.^^ 

In 1897 M. Ototzky was directed by the Imperial Society to undertake some new 
researches, but this time in the Province of St. Petersburg at 60° north latitude in a 
region whose rainfall is much greater than that of the steppes, where he had worked in 
1895 (23.6 inches annual rainfall instead of 11.8). 

He proved again that, under the forests where observations were made, the phreatic 
sheet is depressed compared with what it is n neighboring cultivated regions. The 
difference of levels is rather shght, and varied from 19.7 to 44.5 inches. 

On July 1, 1899, M. Henry, professor at the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets," 
at his own request, was authorized to undertake at the expense of the "Administration 
des Eaux et Forets" some soundings, with a view to verifying and completing the data 
furnished by the Russian experimenter. 

The forest of Moudon near Luneville (Meurthe-et- Moselle) was chosen for these re- 
searches. It forms a large mass of woodland about 4,942 acres in extent (the altitude 
varies from 807 to 873 feet). The soil is composed of sirata of sand, gravel, and flint, 
originating from the ancient alluvial beds of the Meurthe and the Vezou.se, at the con- 
fluence of which rivers the forest is situated. The water-bearing strata are met at a 
slight depth, their upper level being given at depth of about 6.5 to 16.4 feet. A little 
lower, about 23 feet or more, one finds an impermeable clay against which the infiltra- 
tions are arrested. These different strata, and especially the last named, appear to be 
horizontal. 

The rainfall in the forest was 28 inches in 1900 and 35 in 1901. The mean annual 
temperature is 9° 4 C. (49° F.) with an average of + 1° 43 C. (345 F.) in winter and 17° 
70 C. (64° F.) in summer. 

The forest is composed of oak, beech, and hornbeam ; it has been planted with storied 
coppice in a rotation of 35 years in the greater part of its extent. Some small parts are 
to be found covered with Scotch pine, the result of the replanting of ancient gaps in 
the forest. 

In the spring of 1900 ten holes of 2 inches in diameter were drilled by the aid of the 
Belgian geological borer, and these holes were lined with zinc tubes v»hich had been 
pierced with small apertures and furnished at their lower end with a similarly perforated 
cone. Thus the earth was prevented from falhng in and filling up the bottom of the well. 
The numerous small apertures in the metal allowed the water easily to find its own level. 

Five holes were bored in bare ground in parcels of ground which had been cleared for 
the use of the forest guardians, in the nursery gardens, and in the communal pasturage, but 
always on the borders of the forest, the farthest removed being about a hundred meters. 
Five others, destined to be compared with the preceding five, were made under the neigh- 
boring woodlands, as nearly approaching the same conditions as it was possil)le to give. 

« Evidently it is well to operate only in ground which lies horizontally at the surface, 
and which is of a homogeneous character to a great depth, so as to avoid the influence 
of an uneven surface, and that of the undulations of the upper levels of deep impermeable 
strata, whose projection may l)e very different from that of the surface. In stratified 
ground, with strata alternately more or less permeable, the course of the subterranean 
waters depends solely on the way these strata run, and can give us no notion of the 
influence of the superficial vegetation. Unfortunately the ground in which M. Ototzky 
first undertook his experiments appears to have been far from homogeneous, since he 
found there in less than 16 feet of depth, three different well-defined spring levels. 
Moreover the projection of the soil seems to have been taken very little into account, 
notably in No. 3 boring in the forest of Chipoff. 



378 APPENDIX 

There were, therefore, five pairs of borings. 

Observations were made once a month from May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902. 

The leveHng was done by the pupils of the "Ecole Forestiere" in May, 1900, and May, 
1901, in taking for the initial point the altitude of the Station of Marainvilliers which is 
about 790.1 feet. 

One will find in the following table (page 379) all the measurements taken at Moudon; 
none have been omitted (abridged in translation). 

We have been obliged, however, to omit the report of one of the five pairs, of which 
one bore was made in the fields of the farm of St. George and the other in the neighbor- 
ing coppice (third cutting in the third series of coppices) because the bore made in the 
field was destroyed by the plow in March, 1901. 

The figures of the table (page 379) give the immediate results of the measurements 
effected, without taking into account the difference in the altitude of the orifices of 
the borings. 

If all the measurements are reduced to the same horizontal level, one finds that 
the level of the water under the forest at all seasons is lower than that under bare ground : 
By 11.8 inches for the first couple, 7.9 for the second couple, 16.5 for the third couple, 
12.2 for the fourth couple. 

It is certain that the difference of level is more accentuated than these figures would 
indicate, since one knows that in permeable soils the phreatic sheet follows the varia- 
tions of the outUne relief of the stratum, although with far less pronounced undulations. 

But let us accept the preceding figures as unquestionable minima whose average is 
11.8 inches. 

We can affirm that, according to the measurements efTected each month from May 4, 
1900, to August 24, 1902, in eight borings made at random, sometimes under the wood- 
lands, sometimes under the bare ground near the forest of Moudon (Meurthe-et-Moselle) 
the level of subterranean waters at all seasons is at least 11.8 inches deeper under the 
woods than it is outside. 

The experiments of M. Henry, carried out regularly for a period of 28 months have 
further brought to light the following facts, which are absolutely new. 

The oscillations in the level of phreatic waters is less under the woods than in the 
open. The infiltration, too, is slower in the forest. The maxima and minima occur 
about a month later than those observed outside of the woods. 

One sees here that the forest plays the same role of regulator and stabilizer which one 
recognizes it to do with regard to the temperature. 

Some experiments made quite recently by M. Ototzky, an account of which has been 
published in Russian in the fourth number of 1902 of the Magazine "La Pedologie," 
and of which a French translation by M. A. de Lebedef, attache of the "Ministere de 
L'Interieur " at St. Petersburg, is in the press has still further confirmed these facts. 

M. Ototzky's experiments were made at the "Ecole forestiere" of Staraia Rossa 
(province of Novgorod) at 58° N. latitude, near to the Lake of Ihnen. "One is obliged 
to conclude," says M. Ototzky at the end of his article, " that the level of subterranean 
water is lower in the forest than in the stratum exploited, in summer as well as in winter, 
and also that the oscillations are less .''^ 

To sum up, we seem to have gained the information that in the forests of 
the plains in temperate or cold climates,"" whose soil is formed of homogeneous 

^^ Quotation borrowed from M. Henry (Revue des Eaux et Forets, 1903, p. 197). 

■*" In the tropical region of the glolie where the heat is torrid, it is physical evaporation 
froni the soil which plays the preponderating part, while physiological evaporation does 
not increase with the temperature. It may be, therefore, that in this case the level of 
the subterranean waters is even higher in the forest. M. Ribbentrop has vouched for 
this fact near Madras (Revue des Eaux et Forets, 1901). 



THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 



379 



DEPTH OF THE SUBSOIL WATER (IN FEET) IN THE FOUR COUPLES OP 
BORINGS IN THE STATE FOREST OF MOUDON.* 



Bare 
ground 



Old 
coppice 



Bare 

nursery 

site 



Old 
coppice 



Bare 
ground 



Old 
coppice 



Bare 
pasture 



Scotch 
pine 



Altitude of station, in feet 

Average depth of water level, 
in feet 

Average depth of water level 
corrected for altitude, in 
feet 

Difference, in feet 

Maximum monthly varia- 
tions, in feet 



799.77 
8.50 

11.12 



4.43 



802.42 
12.11 



12 11 

+ .99 



3.44 



802.26 
13 32 

14.73 



803.8 
15.39 



15.39 
+ .66 



3.84 



845.37 
9.25 

13.19 

6.66 



849.31 
14.57 



14.57 
+1.38 



6.56 



811.87 
7.09 

7.09 

10.73 



807.08 
3.31 



8.10 
+1.01 



* Totals and averages only are given in translation, condensed and rearranged from 
results of field work extending over 28 months, May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902. See 
page 22 for a confirmation of these conclusions. 

strata lying horizontally and in which in consequence the subterranean sheet is 
motionless : 

(1) The level of phreatic waters is lower under the forest at all seasons, than outside 
of it. 

(2) The depression appears greater in regions where the rainfall is less, than where it 
rains a great deal. 

(3) The oscillations in the level are considerably reduced and lessened by the presence 
of the forest. 

Returning now to our subject, can we conclude from the foregoing that forests are 
injurious to the feeding of the subterranean sheet of water on level ground in temperate 
climates? 

This certainly seems probable. The intensity of physiological evaporation may be 
the explanation of this curious lowering of the subterranean sheet under the woods. 
This will be the lower, that is to say, the less thick (admitting that the impermeable 
stratum by which the infiltrated waters are arrested, is horizontal), because the forest 
abstracts more water from infiltration in its growth than does the neighboring 
ground. 

Nevertheless, there is one thing which may cause us to doubt the truth of these con- 
clusions. A careful examination of Table 6 shows us that the depression of the sheet 
beneath the forest is more marked during the season of repose in vegetation than during 
the summer. This fact is verified in the case of all the couples of borings, and for the 
whole length of time during which observations were made. One might conclude from 
this that it is not the vegetation of the trees that causes the lowering of level. 

Are we here perhaps in the presence of a fresh consequence of this fact that, under 
the forest, the region drained of water by roots, the dry zone in fact reaches to a lower 
level than under cultivated ground? 

However this may be, if the fact of the lowering of the level of subterranean waters 
imder the woods appears certain, its interpretation is less so, and we are left in doubt 
as to the definite influence, all things taken into consideration of the woods upon the 
feeding of springs in level ground. 

This first study was in the press when we received notice (March, 1904) of the official 



380 APPENDIX 

account of the fourth congress of the International Association of the "Stations de 
Recherches Forestieres," which assembled in Austria in September, 1903.'*^ 

At this congress, M. Hartmann, an engineer of the Bavarian State, gave an account 
of the results of researches undertaken in collaboration with the Forest Service by the 
Royal Hydrotechnical Service with a view to the comparative study of the oscillations 
of the level of the subterranean water in wooded ground or in the open. 

Observations were taken at two points. The first, Mindelheim, at a height of 2,014 
feet, is situated on almost perfectly horizontal ground at the surface (inclination six per 
thousand) composed of the alluvial deposits of the Mindel, a direct tributary of the 
right bank of the Danube. 

The forest is situated in a small piece of isolated ground composed of about 988 acres 
in the midst of landed estates, and is composed of oak, Scotch, and spruce pines, of about 
9 years of age. The other station, Wendelstein, is in the neighborhood of Ntirnberg. 

M. Hartmann thinks it can be concluded from his statements « that the forest exerts 
no influence on the level of the subterranean sheet. The latter is generally not stagnant 
(as has been known for a long time) but takes a more or less rapid course according to 
the inclination of the surface of the subsoil, the thickness of the subterranean sheet in 
motion, and the degree of permeability of the soil in which it moves. The considerable 
differences in the level of subterranean waters observed in Bavaria at points contiguous 
to a horizontal and homogeneous soil at the surface, can only be explained by the varia- 
tion in the projection of the subsoil stratum, and by the very variable depth and celerity 
of the subterranean sheet. 

At Mindelheim, in fact, the subterranean sheet is nearer the surface under the woods 
than in the open. M. Hartmann thinks that the forest counts for nothing, and that the 
reverse might just as equally hold good. 

Conclusions. — In the course of this long study on the influence of forests on the 
feeding of springs, we have particularly insisted on certain points which, recently 
brought to light, have hitherto only been dealt with in original memoranda, and are 
therefore inaccessible to the greater number of readers. 

This chapter, now that its end has been reached, leads to one conclusion. 

(1) We have seen that the forest has the effect of increasing the abundance and the 
frequency of atmospheric precipitations. 

This action of the forest, proved by many experiments in France and abroad during 
30 years, must be regarded as a well established fact, although certain authors, without 
absolutely denying it, have declared it negligible, or else of so slight a nature as not to 
be ascertained by ordinary rain gauges, since these instruments are lacking in absolute 
accuracy. 

The increase of water which the forest obtains, amounts to 23 per cent in an average 
of 33 years of observations taken at the "Station de Recherches" of Nancy. It seems 
however to increase with the altitude of the place where the forests are situated. 

(2) The forest retains a part of the fallen water by its adherence to the crowns and 
branches and this returns to the atmosphere by direct evaporation. On the other hand 
these same crowns and branches are always colder, and often to a very considerable 

** Vierte Versammlung des internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Versuchsanstaten, 
1903. Mariabrun, 1904 (pubhshed by the "Station de recherches autrichienne"). 

^^ It seems to us that the conclusions of the Bavarian engineer are somewhat lacking 
in precision, at least in the text we have before our eyes. One might conclude, it would 
seem, especially from the accounts given by himself, that the two points chosen for the 
experiments were not at all suitable for the purpose, the subterranean sheet being far 
from immovable, and the subsoil not horizontal. In any case, we find nothing here of a 
nature to invalidate the very clear and well balanced results of the measurements taken 
at Moudon, as given us by M. Henr^. 



PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 381 

degree colder, than the surrounding air, and sometimes are the means of condensing 
enormous quantities of aqueous vapor, which they introduce to the soil in a liquid 
state. Moreover, it is not uncommon, especially in winter time, to see the soil which is 
immediately shaded by a tree, receive more water than a neighboring point in the forest 
where there is a gap in the shade. For the rest it would seem that the loss of water aris- 
ing from its retention by the crowns is inferior to the increase of water obtained by the 
presence of the forest itself. This fact has assuredly been estabhshed in the case of the 
broadleaved plantations in the neighborhood of Nancy; it would seem also certain in 
the case of the plantations of Scotch pines and larches, and it is probable even for those 
of spruce pine. One can therefore affirm that, in spite of the screen afforded by the 
treetops, generally speaking, the forest soil receives more water than does the neigh- 
boring soil under cultivation. 

(3) The forest causes an enormous diminution in physical evaporation, and prevents 
surface flow almost entirely. Moreover in numerous cases where one of these phe- 
nomena — and a fortiori when both simultaneously — play a preponderating part, as 
often happens in hot countries and on sloping ground, it is unreservedly admitted that 
the forest is favorable to the feeding of the subterranean sheet, and in consequence to 
that of springs. 

(4) So far as our researches have actually progressed, we cannot be sure that the forest 
is favorable or unfavorable to the feeding of subterranean waters in level ground or 
in cold or temperate climates. 

As a matter of fact we are ignorant as to whether its vegetation does not abstract more 
water from the soil than do agricultural vegetables, as the lowering in the level of the 
phreatic waters observed under the woodlands would seem to indicate. It may be that 
such an increase in the communication is compensated l^y the increase in the watering 
of the soil, and the reduction in physical evaporation when these two last factors are 
unimportant (as for example at low altitudes and in cold climates). For the rest, the 
facts noted are contradictory; cases of springs are quoted which have dried up in conse- 
quence of clearings as, on the other hand, superficial dryings up of the soil have been 
observed, where replanting has taken place. Doubt is therefore forced upon us in this 
special case; the action of the forest on the feeding of the springs remains uncertain, and 
it is probably variable according to circumstances which, as yet, remain unelucidated. 

(5) Nevertheless it must be observed that springs are only numerous and important 
in mountain regions, and there certainly the forests are favorable to them. 

In the plains the springs are infrequent, and have a feeble output. We are therefore 
justified in repeating, as our fathers declared, that the forest is the mother of the rivers; 
the labors of modern science have served only to establish the parentage, universally 
and at all times recognized, which connects the spring with the tree which shades it. 



APPENDIX B 

THE FOREST, FROM A PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL VIEWPOINT i 

(By Jacqtjot) 

To-day there is strong sentiment in favor of forests. Newspapers defend. Congress 
discusses and prepares laws for them, associations organize for the protection of existing 

1 La Foret, A. Jacquot, pp. 287-30.5. Digest and part translation made with a view to 
preserving Jacquot's picturesque language. According to scientific research Jacquot 
exaggerates, but it must be borne in mind that he is presenting the subject of forest 
influences from a popular viewpoint. 



382 APPENDIX 

stands as well as for the forestation of uncultivated lands. The Touring Club of France 
should be cited as a special example. Numerous governments are instituting Arbor 
Days. In solemnly planting trees with their own hands, the kings of Spain, Italy and 
England, and high government officials in the United States are merely imitating an 
example given by our societies or by the ancestral custom, observed in certain com- 
munes of Alsace, of planting at least one tree at the birth of each child. There also, 
newly married couples plant two fir trees on the day of their marriage. . . . The 
tree which grows in humanity which is increasing. The instinctive cultivation and 
religious admiration of primitive peoples for the trees is based on science and reason. 

Physical Role of Forests. — Humidity. — Forests increase the degree of humidity 
in the air. Not only are the arid zones sheltered by forests . . . but furthermore, 
in the majority of cases, the presence of a vegetative mantle on the mountains is of 
importance in the yield of crops and favors life and populations. Here the forestation, 
true talisman of life, becomes a work of safety, and a question to be or not to be. All 
floods have their rise on the bare ground created by the destructive felling of timber 
which protects it. In these regions the forest disappears even though it is indispensable 
to agricultural crops, the foundation of human life. It is on account of aridity alone, 
and not for any other reason, that there have been terrible famines in Russia, in India, 
and in China. Deforestation dries up a country. Without water there can be no life, 
without humidity the ground will become as dead as the m^oon, and forests are necessary 
in order to have water. Since their deforestation . . . Columbia, the Islands of 
Maurice, of Reunion, and of Ascension, Sicily, Asia Minor and all other denuded regions 
have experienced terrible droughts. These droughts immediately stopped in localities 
where tree growth has been reestablished. In Porto Rico and in Jamaica, the phenome- 
non is doubly verified in recent times. The rains disappear with the trees but return 
with them. Above the forests there are light clouds, and after the shower the branches 
drip onto the soil. . . . During the night the trees water the heather as if the urns 
of the sky were thinking of the earth in order to fill up the divine springs. We have seen 
aU that and have concluded that the forest is the mother of the waters. But figures will 
suffice to give an idea of the strength of the forest : an acre of high forest pumps every 
day into the soil 10,000 to 12,000 quarts of reserve water; its evaporation can be placed 
at 2,616 cubic yards per year representing a stream 20 inches high or almost three- 
fourths the total rainfall falhng in France. The quantity of liquid emitted by 
the same area of water, mineral substance or vegetable substance are in the proportion 
of 1, 3, and 60. The forest is certainly a reservoir of humidity. It is also a regulator. 

While running water is often dangerous, its infiltration is desirable for the life of 
springs. This infiltration attains its maximum under forest stands. The cover of 
trees (doubled by a brush under story) largely reduces evaporation. Under the forest 
the soil is better irrigated than on bare soil. On the other hand, the snow falls more 
slowly, consequently the absorption of the forested land is perfect. The forest tends 
to make the temperature more uniform by reducing the extremes of heat or cold. It 
exercises the same action as does the sea at the seashore. On Hmestone soil, which forms 
the major part of our planet, the running water digs out the soil and is then hidden by 
these very fissures. Drought is accentuated, increasing the intensity of burning sands, 
the bare steppes, and the arid deserts. It is a war of thirst, which menaces the twenti- 
eth century. The forest alone by the shelter of its thick layer of humus is capable of 
making a successful fight against the bankruptcy of the waters. 

Hail. — The trees diminish the storms, lessening electric discharges and rendering 
less frequent and less dangerous the fall of hail, which in the deforested regions cuts 
and damages the crops. Numerous examples have been established. In eighteen 
departments, where the hail is usually the most damaging, fourteen are the least forested 
in France. 



PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 383 

Frost. — Around the forest, but not in it, one finds the white frosts which are so 
common in dry climates. The upper story protects the lower vegetation like a tender 
blanket. It replaces, after a fashion, artificial shelter. 

Wind. — Without the trees in numberless coxmtries, the violence of the wind lay? 
low the plants or dries them up. . . . The smallest shrub or the simple hedge of 
cypress of the Provence exercises a beneficial protective cover. In Russia, when the 
June vegetation of the steppes is in full bloom, the squares enclosed with planted hedges 
remain green, and furnish half again as much revenue. In Algeria, they say that nothing 
can resist the sirocco. Nevertheless, it has been conquered by the trees. Look at 
the delicate plants in the experimental gardens at Algiers and the rich plantations of 
the Mitidja. . . . 

Springs, Avalanches. — All the world to-day bears witness to the benefit of the 
vegetable cover for the maintenance and conservation of springs (see Appendix, p. 
361). This is also true of the value of forests in protecting against avalanches. 

Floods. — The forest is the sovereign regulator of waterflow. On the denuded slope, 
the rain rushes along carrying the material eroded from the loose soil. This mass, 
increased by the mixture of debris, and with its increasing speed, communicates a 
tremendous live force to these thousands of little streams. It becomes a furious tor- 
rent which carries off the slopes, bears rocks along and even fields and houses. Gravel 
fills the bed of the rivers and hinders shipping. It covers the plain with blocks of stone 
and sterile sand. What would happen, on the other hand, with a wooded slope? A 
large proportion of the rain will have been stopped by the foliage and branches to be 
given back to the atmosphere. The remainder, broken up by the fohage, strikes the 
soil as if it had passed through a sieve. The layer of dead leaves and humus which 
carpets the forest floor is a soft sponge with an extraordinary capacity for absorption. 
It absorbs five, six, and even nine times its liquid weight before saturation, when it 
lets the water seep, drop by drop, to the surface and to the interior of the soil to feed 
subterranean streams which result in springs. The small surplus water, which is not 
retained, encounters in its flow innumerable obstacles, trunks, roots, moss, herbaceous 
flora, dead branches, dead leaves, and the inextricable lacework of roots. The flow is 
divided slowly up and does not erode the soil. It arrives at the foot of the slope slowly 
and in small quantities. . . . Against the heat of the sun and the drying winds 
of the south the branches serve as a screen. In the spring they diminish the damaging 
effect of warm rains on the snow and prevent too rapid melting. The regularity of 
the run-off is determined by the state and extent of the forests which cover the basin. 
Numerous experiments in valleys, some forested and others bare, have proved this. 
These comparisons have given rise to the adage: "He who wishes to master the waters, 
must first master the forests." Thus to the trees crowning the mountains the soil is 
held in place. The slopes are maintained and erosion ceases. Its action can thus be 
summarized : 

"The presence of forest stops the formation of torrents. Its development extin- 
guishes it. Its destruction delivers the soil as a prey to erosion. All the fundamental 
laws recognize the absolute necessity of reforestation. In the denuded countries, what 
ravages! The torrents attack the mountainsides like a 'pieuvre,' eat them out, dis- 
integrate and carry them piecemeal to the plain. High up the rock is bared, lower 
down they cause the fields to become barren and covered with debris. The roads 
are interrupted. The railway lines cut and the bridges demolished. One sees the 
opening up of abysses, the cut of railroad lines, and the engulfment of entire villages. 
Each year, in France, the floods cause an average damage of $.5,790,000. With the 
expense, which has been caused by such floods during the 19th century, all Europe could 
have been reforested. These catastrophes have been the result of excessive deforesta- 



384 APPENDIX 

tion — a veritable social crime. It is the ruination of the mountaineer. . . . More- 
over, the man that deforests assassinates the plain. The damage is far reaching. . . . 
The waterfall which directs our turbines and produces the power for heat and light 
may be done away with and rendered useless by deforestation. If you kill the forest, 
you kill the brook which is the friend of mechanics. Thanks to electricity. . . . 
water has become (as the ancients said) the most precious of gifts. ... By enor- 
mous dams, engineers have hoped to avoid the terrible results of deforestation. . . . 
How much inferior is this inert masonry, limited to a single valley, in comparison with 
the strength and value of forests, living, supple, growing forever, which cover the valleys 
as they do the plain. Free accumulator of water, ideal, green, cool, which man removes 
and cuts like grain! In every deforested basin, the difference between the low-water 
mark and the flood waters is formidable. For example, in the Loire, the CheUff, the 
Seybouze, the Vidourle, the Verdon, it is 900, 1,500, 6,600, 1,500, and 2,000,000 times 
the ordinary flow. The flow of the Ardeche is usually reduced to 6.5 cubic yards, 
whereas it sometimes amounts to 10,500, when it has the size of a Mississippi, or an 
Orinoco, or a Danube. The flood that comes with the rapidity of a galloping horse 
and throws into the Rhone such a volume of water that the flood level rises 16.4 feet. 
If there is no stand of trees to stop the erosion of storm floods, every deluge ravages 
slopes all the way to the plain. . . . The damage done by the Garonne means an 
annual loss of $1,544,000. This same amount spent only once, but properly applied, 
that is to say for reforestation in the Pyrenees, would permit the suppression of every 
cause of the damage. . . . One now commences to realize that the forest is a two- 
faced army to fight for or against water. The same water which is not stored by the 
forest may be transformed to mechanical energy or . . . may suddenly pre- 
cipitate itself in a formidable, devastating mass. The impoverishment of the world, 
erosion, the transport from the mountain to the sea, the frightful loss of water . . . 
the forest alone can stop it. . . . Deprived of their cover of wood or of grass, the 
slopes erode, waste away, and fall in ruins. On the forested slopes, on the contrary, 
everything remains. The roots fix the humus to the rocks. Everywhere the forested 
mountain changes a foolish water into a wise one. It renders the typhoon inoffensive 
by dividing up its floods and distributing its monstrous mass in millions of drops which 
flow slowly over the old surface of the earth. We must then recognize that the water 
being everything and life being impossible without it, the tree which holds the water 
is everything itself. If the forest was held sacred by religion, it should be held still 
more sacred by reason of its social necessity. To plant a tree is to accomplish a good 
deed, to create a forest is to enrich the country by a conquest which does not cause a 
tear or shed a drop of blood. 

" Economic Role — Utility of Wood. — From the beginning of the world wood has 
been a prime necessity. The prehistoric people lived in the forest and on the forest. 
Coal, gas, and electricity have modified the use of wood but without abohshing or 
diminishing the demand. Imagine the enormous volume used by the thousands of 
trades which must have wood products for the innumerable objects manufactured, 
from the great steamship to the little doll. Alone, paper mills could devour all the 
forests of the world and only to assure the printing of 70,000 newspapers of 200 volumes 
which are published daily. For France alone it represents the annual production of 
1,235,000 acres of high forest. The coal mines use each year 24,000,000 cubic meters 
(about 5 million thousand feet board measure) in their galleries, about nine and a half 
times the volume of the greatest pyramid in Egypt. Finally the world uses more wood 
than it produces. The excess of use over normal increase is about 2,620,000 tons per 
year. The deficit is momentarily made up by the destruction of forests. It is an 
expedient of which the fallacy is clear. A dearth of timber menaces us. Our country 



PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 385 

imports annually from 39.5 to 42.5 million dollars worth. Plant new stands with the 
utmost ardor, since the operation is profitable.^ The pineries, for example, yield 
5 to 10 per cent. There does not exist any other more advantageous investment. 
Forestation enriches the planter and makes our country stronger. 

" Social Role — Climate. — Following excessive deforestation, the local climate be- 
comes worse. The prosperity of agriculture, the health of inhabitants, the pubUc 
fortune itself, depends upon normal proportion of forest. This per cent is itself an 
element to regulate the world's circulation of cloud, rain, snow, flood, and even the 
ocean. The denuded zones in the mountains must be restocked in order to re-establish 
order in nature, without which all economics are profoundly upset; it is partly due 
to the absence of forests that one must attribute the burning climate of the interior of 
Asia, Africa, and Australia. The destruction of stands has produced disastrous climatic 
changes in Greece, in Russia, ... in Asia Minor, and in certain regions of India. 
All history agrees on this point. It shows clearly the disastrous effects of great de- 
forestation on climate. Aristotle, Pliny, and Strabon predicted to their contemporaries 
the sterility which would follow deforestation . . . which, in lowering the humidity 
necessary for vegetation, . . . has brought on something more terrible than any 
war, namely, the decadence of the most powerful empires, . . . those great coun- 
tries which were the founders of the human race — Mesopotamia, Turkestan, Bactres, 
the splendor of the Greek civilization under Alexander the Great, Palestine, Syria, 
deprived of forests made the water, the vegetation, and the inhabitants disappear. 
Desert and sterile, the jaded country once so populous, deforestation has driven away 
life itself. Deforestation has even permitted the sea to recover land once cultivated — • 
the Pomeranian shore, the Zuyder Zee. At the middle of the seventeenth century, the 
Chinese had transformed Tartary into a desert by removing the trees which protected 
it. Because of deforestation, the temperature of the winter season is even lower than 
it was in Norway. On the plateau of Iran, the temperature passes in several hours 
from 60° C. to 7° C. (140° to 44.6° F.). The air is so dry that nothing can withstand 
it. We must go back to the old tradition and realize that it is a scientific fact that the 
ancient veneration for trees shown by our fathers is because the forest is completely 
indispensable to creation. 

" Hygiene. — Under the majority of cases, hygiene is intimately linked with forests. 
From the Roman times it has been recognized that the excessive felling of forests exerts 
an unfortunate effect upon the physical condition of the country and compromises 
the health of the inhabitants. Swamp fevers follow deforestation ever\-n'here in the 
subtropical zones. On the other hand, forestation accompanied by drainage dries up 
the marshes and diminishes sickness in fever regions such as the Roman Campagna 
certain steppes of Russia, Tuscan Maremme, in the Landes, in Poitou, and in other 
places less known. The difference between sickness and health, between prosperity 
and extreme misery, coincides with the appearance or disappearance of the arborescent 
mantle. Such are the contemporary facts. The Belgians celebrate by an official 
fiesta the social role of silviculture, proclaiming that the forests exercise the most healthy 
mfluence on climate and public hygiene. It is not necessary to have great areas of 
forest to manifest its curative strength. A single eucalyptus tree may drain the excess 
water from one-quarter of an acre. In Algeria, a hedge several yards in length . . . 
may guarantee all the occupants of a house against swamp wet soils so conducive to 
malaria. Thousands of examples prove it. The marsh of Bonfarick, one of the un- 
healthiest localities in Algeria, has been transformed by planting into one of the health- 
iest colonies in France. In 30 years the pineries have made healthy, fertile, and rich 

2 This, of course, is an exceptional instance of profitable private forestry. Here worth- 
less sand wastes were made to yield a handsome revenue (see p. 183). 



386 APPENDIX 

the Sologne which exaggerated deforestation had reduced to a state of pestilential fever. 
Formerly unsalable, the Landes of Gascogne are now worth 193 million dollars or more. 
A region formerly unhealthy because of fever has to-day the name which is doubly 
merited of Cote d' Argent; formerly devastated by sickness, the population now lives 
in perfect health in what is actually a health resort. Forests are a potent obstacle to 
the spread of certain diseases. Not only is the air free from deleterious gas, but there 
is no dust or nocturnal dampness, but the acid of forest soil kills the germs of cholera, 
typhus, the bacilli of tetanus. . . . The forestation of watersheds gives a guarantee 
of purity. Often a sequence of deforestation is a decrease in population. It is some- 
thing that has happened in most of the Mediterranean islands, as well as in the Azores 
and in the Canaries. When the Venetians ruined the forests of Dalmatia, three-quarters 
of the inhabitants were compelled to leave. In France, the thirty departments where 
there is the most deforestation have a depopulation seven times as rapid as the fifty- 
seven departments where the forests are maintained. Not only does the birth rate 
diminish and the mortality increase in the deforested departments, but the inhabitants 
still emigrate. They go in search of a living. . . . Forests precede people, deserts 
succeed them. . . . Deforestation has transformed Turkestan into a desert, where 
it was formerly fertile. Deforestation has destroyed its equable climate, its former 
ferility, and, in consequence, its population. . . . Since the planting near Sologne, 
the local population has increased 2,2.50 per cent. The examples are too numerous to 
enumerate. A Servian proverb summarizes the problem; 'He who kills a tree kills 
a man.' 

".Esthetic. — That is, the material side of the forest; but that is not the only 
question to consider. ... In the spring the forest is an enchantment for the eyes. 
One sees the bare forest clothe itself from branch to branch. . . . Nature is irre- 
sistible. Artists feel the seduction of the forest and found colonies in it as at Barbi- 
zon. . . . The first homage of man was addressed to the great forests, eternal and 
immovable, which cover all parts. . . . The forests, according to Chateaubriand, 
were the early temples. This rehgion was that of all the peoples of antiquity: The 
forest is sacred. . . It was worshipped by numberless tribes. . . . The 

disappearance of the forests on the plateau or Central Asia made it so uninhabitable 
that whole tribes and races who occupied it were forced to emigrate. . . . Manon 
had in his laws (the most ancient of the world) : ' Defend the forest against destruction. 
One finds in any of the old religions, the myth of the sacred tree, the gods assembled 
under its shade. . . . The imagination of the Greeks and of the Romans was peopled 
with sylvan deities. . . . Almost always the temples were surrounded by sacred 
forests. It was often in the forests that the gods spoke through oracles. ... In 
Ceylon, in Spain and Persia, and in Manila, the trees are still worshipped. Saint 
Valery, fighting against paganism, turned his anger against the nymphs of the forest 
and the fountains. . . . We know now that the disappearance of the forest de- 
stroys the equilibrium of natural forces and makes for disastrous climatic changes, sub- 
stituting sterility for richness, the desert for abundance, death for Hfe. As though crazy, 
mountaineers often say: 'After us the deluge,' without realizing that the forest means 
water and freshness so necessary for pasturage. . . . The existence of man is 
coupled with the existence of the forest, moreover the forest is the index of public 
welfare and the richness of a people. It is necessary, then, that each man become 
a friend of the trees and that our laws and our hearts protect this arborescent vegeta- 
tion without which our civilization would perish. Against the savage violence of the 
torrent or the deadly menace of the avalanche we must oppose the serene strength of 
our great benefactress — the forest. Child of Nature itself, it shields, with its pro- 
tective cover, children of humanity. The present children need it with its living force 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 387 

which maintains the activity of the entire world under the beneficence and splendor 
of its shade. 

"As the centuries roll by, let us unite in reflecting on the instinctive sentiment of the 
ancients for inviolable forests and the cultivation of the tree." 



APPENDIX C 

SILVICS OF IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES. LISTS OF TREES, SHRUBS, 
AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE MOUNTAINS 

FRENCH SILVICS OF PEDUNCULATE OAK 

{Quercus pedunculatay 

Size. — Quercus robur.^ Under this name Hooker, De CandoUe, and other eminent 
authorities include Quercus pedunculata (peduncled oak) and Quercus sessiliflora 
(English oak), the British representative of the species. 

Pedunculate oak is a species which reaches considerable dimensions. During youth, 
and up to 40 to 50 years of age, it has an irregular bole but later on the shaft becomes 
straight, cylindrical, sometimes with a clear length of 65 feet. This tree may reach a 
height of from L31 to 147 feet and even 190 feet in a few instances; thanks to its very 
great longevity it reaches large diameters. The Montravail oak, near Saintes (Charente 
Inferieure Department), is between 6.6 and 7.6 feet in diameter at breast height; its 
main branches have a diameter of 3.3 feet at their base; the total height is 65.6 feet, the 
crown width 131.7 feet, and it is estimated to be some 2,000 years old. 

Habit. — The crown of pedunculate oak is formed of a few irregularly bent and 
twisted main branches; the foliage is very unevenly distributed in tufts with wide and 
numerous openings. . . . The foliage is incomplete and less thick than that of 
sessile oak. 

Leaves. — Pedunculate oak leaves (more so than those of Quercus sessiliflora) dry 
up at the end of autumn and drop off immediately, except those of coppice shoots and 
suckers which are semi-persistent. Of a light green color, sometimes reddish or yellow- 
ish at the beginning of summer, the leaf is moderately shiny or quite dull; it is of a 
somewhat sea green (glaucous) hue; frequently it is undulated, more seldom flat. 
If green and gathered during September, it has an average weight as compared to sessile 
oak leaves as 34 is to 40. (A. Mathieu.) When used dry as agricultural manure 300 
to 350 pounds is equal to 100 pounds of straw. Pedunculate oak is . . . much 
less suitable than sessile oak for pure plantations, since it has a lighter foliage and 
yields less htter. This is why coppice-under-standards composed of pure ses.sile oak 
yields a fair stand while the same cannot be said to be true of pure pedunculate oak. 

This species seems eminently suitable for coppice-under-standards on clayey, moist 
soils and for high forests when mixed with tolerant species ; sessile oak, however, should 
be preferred to it whenever . . . pure forestation is attempted. 

Seed Capacity. — Pedunculate oak bears acorns from 60 to 100 years of age, accord- 
ing to whether grown single or in close stand. Sprouts bear acorns as early as 20 years, 
and even before; but plentiful seed crops occur only 3 to 4 years and even 8 to 10 years 
according to whether the climate is more or less favorable. An absolute failure of 
acorns, such as happens with beech between crops, is rare; some few are always to be 
foimd on isolated or border trees. 

^ Based on a free translation from French authors. 
2 See also Chapter V. 



388 APPENDIX 

Germination. — The germination of acorns is quick and takes place at a low tem- 
perature, from 3 to 4 degrees C. (37 degrees to 39 degrees F.) above zero; they are 
difficult to preserve even till spring. A bushel weighs about 40 pounds on an average 
and contains approximately from 8,000 to 9,300 seeds. 

Rooting. — The tap root of pedunculate oak is developed first; at one year of age 
it is often 12 inches in length. Only when about 6 to 8 years old does it produce a few 
laterals; but at 60 to 70 years the laterals are dominant and the tap root becomes of 
secondary importance and seldom reaches below 3 to 5 feet. Stump and root wood, 
with 12-inch stumps, represents 14 per cent to 17 per cent of the total cubic volume. 

Shoots and Suckers. — Dormant buds keep alive a long time and retain great 
reproductive power to an advanced age; per contra, it means that standards are liable 
to have numerous root suckers after the coppice has been felled. Pedunculate oak is 
therefore more liable to have epicormic branches than its associate sessile oak. 

Adventitious buds are but rarely formed and only in very fertile soils; they produce 
poorly attached shoots which wind, snow, and hoarfrost easily cause to break. Stump 
shoots root but superficially and do not require deep soil. 

Bark. — The bark is smooth, shiny, and silver-gray up to 20 to 30 years . . . 
after that age, a brown bark with longitudinal flakes which becomes thicker and 
thicker. . . . 

Geographical Distribution. — The habitat of pedunculate oak is very extensive. 
It is found between east and west longitude 65 degrees, from the ITral Mountains and 
the coast of the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Its southern limit is from southern 
Spain, at a point in the Sierra Morena, south of Sicily, Italy, Greece, thence through 
Minor Asia as far as the Eastern Caucasus. The northern limit starts from Scotland, 
goes to 63d latitude in Norway and thence southeastward through St. Petersburg to 
Orenburg, in the Ural. It thus extends through about 26 degrees of latitude. 

Location. - The pedunculate oak prefers the plains and the valley bottoms, but it 
is found in the hills and even reaches as high as 3,280 feet in the Eastern Pyrenees. 

Soil. — Pedunculate oak does not show any particular preference as regards the 
mineral nature of the soil provided it is sufficiently moist, and deep. Sandy-clay soils, 
even if occasionally flooded, suit it especially well; it is a serious error to drain them. 

Tolerance. — Pedunculate oak is a light demandmg species. In order to grow, it 
requires at least four months of uninterrupted vegetative activity with a mean tempera- 
ture of 12.25° C. (54° F.), provided no protracted drought intervenes; in order that 
acorns may mature a total temperature varying (south to north) from 28.75° to 20.20° C. 
(83.75° to 68.50° F.) is necessary. The maximum temperatures that it can stand are, 
in the south, 44° C. (111° F.); in the north, 37° C. (98° F.). When in vegetative ac- 
tivity, it is easily affected by cold; young shoots, leaves and flowers will usually die if, 
during spring, the thermometer falls below 0° C. (32° F.). 

Timber. — It yields primarily building timber. The sapwood is white and clearly 
defined; the more active the vegetation the wider is the sapwood. According to the 
Nancy Forest School collection the total thickness of sapwood is from 0.63 to 3.0 inches; 
the total number of annual rings 36 to 7. The density for timber completely air dried 
is from 0.647 (Forest of Haye, Nancy) to 0.906 (Adour oak), with average yearly incre- 
ments of 0.186 of an inch. 

Uses. — ... The wood is especially prized for ship building. 

Fuel Value. — Its fuel value (based on calorific power) averages, as compared with 
beech, 91/100, according to G. L. Hartig; 85/100, according to Worneck. 

The market value of firewood is below this because pedunculate oak crackles while 
burning, requires a strong draught, and the coals do not hold the fire well. There is a 
great difference as to quality in this respect. Bark from mature trees, on the other 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 389 

hand, has a very high calorific power; as compared with beech wood, the ratio is 108 
to 100 and it burns slowly, with a short flame to be sure, but producing live embers 
that last till entirely burnt out. 

Oak charcoal is valued as compared with beech as 91 is to 100. 

By-Products. — The bark yields tannin of good quality, inferior, however, to that 
of the other species of the same genus. Young pole stands (coppice) between 20 to 30 
years of age yield the best tannin. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — (See sessile oak.) 

SESSILE OAK 
(Quercus sessiliflora) 

Climate and Soil. — The sessile oak, as well as the pedunculate oak, is dependent 
upon the texture, depth, and fertility of the soil rather than on its mineral composition. 
It prefers loose clay. For some time foresters considered that the sessile oak could be 
substituted for the pedunculate oak, or vice versa. Now, they realize that the pedun- 
culate oak requires a moister, or, at least, fresher soil ; sandy loam, even inundated at 
certain seasons of the year, is considered very favorable since it is a species of the plains 
or valleys. On the other hand, low wet clays are less favorable to the sessile oak. 

It is distributed almost all over France, except in the high mountains and in the hotter 
regions bordering the Mediterranean. The pedimculate oak is very abundant in the 
southwest where it forms almost pure stands in the Landes and the Adour Basin. The 
sessile oak is the dominant species in the center of France and in the hilly country, where 
it extends to 3,281 feet of altitude and slightly above. Both the species attain their 
maximum development in the temperate zone where they are of characteristic abundance 
in the region which corresponds to that cultivated for grapes. Alsove the oak comes the 
fir. 

Tolerance. — Both species are hardy when young. They have a light foliage, often 
incomplete, as in the case of the pedunculate oak. They resist heat as well as the cold 
of winter, but their leaves are very liable to spring frost. The pedunculate oak, which 
begins growing later than the sessile oak, is less liable to frost damage. Thej^ are both 
good sprouters. 

Root System and Seeding. — Both species have long tap roots. The fruit is a heavy 
acorn and the seed years are usually frequent in the southwest where it is possible to 
collect seed almost every year; as one advances toward the north, seed are less frequent. 
In northern France they come every 10 to 15 years. 

Growth Longevity. — The growth of these oaks, slow at the start, soon becomes 
quite rapid on good soil and continues to an advanced age, for their longevity is very 
considerable and exceeds 200 years. The growth in height in a dense stand, as well as 
isolated individuals, slows up towards 100 years. 

Utilization. — Oak wood must take the first rank for its general quality but its 
strength depends more or less on whether the growth is rapid or slow. Generally speak- 
ing, the wood of the pedunculate oak is denser than that of sessile oak and is better for 
construction purposes. Sessile oak is more highly valued for wood working and for 
cabinet work; but the pedunculate oak of Hungary is highly esteemed for that purpose. 

By-Products. — The bark is used for tanning purposes. The bark of sessile oak is 
generally richer in tannin than is pedunculate oak when it grows in warm situations and 
in the open. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — " The chief value of oak for the private owner," 
says Broilliard, " is because it is abundant, because it grows on almost every kind of soil, 
because it flourishes whether growing alone or in dense stands, v/hether in high forest 



390 APPENDIX 

or as coppice and grows to such an old age that almost every tree can reach large di- 
mensions." 

The oak is well adapted to treatment as simple coppice and furnishes excellent fuel, 
besides tannin bark, but its chief value is in dimension timber of large size. Treated as 
high forest it flourishes in the plains, but does not reach its maximum value before 200 
to 300 years of age. It requires early thinning and, since it impoverishes the soil, it 
should not be grown pure, but in mixture with the beech or hornbeam. If these ac- 
cessory species are lacking, it is indispensable to preserve undergrowth to protect the 
soil from drying out. From this standpoint, grazing in an old high forest does a good 
deal of damage. On the whole, the thicker crown of the sessile oak enables its treatment 
as a pure stand easier than does the pedunculate. . . . Especially the pedunculate 
oak is adaptable to standards in a coppice-under-standards forest. It yields, however, 
a smaller proportion of timber when grown as coppice-under-standards than it does as 
high forest. When grown in an open stand, it formerly furnished ribs highly valuable 
for ship construction. These two oaks, and especially the sessUe oak, possess the faculty 
of adapting themselves to divers conditions which different methods of treatment pro- 
pose. On the driest and thinnest soils, the sessile oak will merely grow into a bush and, 
while both species prefer rich soil, they often give satisfactory results on soil of moderate 
quality. 

BEECH 

(Fagus sylvatica) 

Size. — Beech is one of the most widely distributed and important of forest trees; 
it attains great size but is smaller than oak or fir, owing to much shorter longevity. 
It rarely lives more than from 300 to 400 years and only occasionally grows to 131 feet 
in height with a maximum diameter of 6.5 feet. 

Habit. — The straight stem is remarkably cylindrical up to a great height and the 
bole remains clear to the crown. . . . The clear length is often 66 feet. When 
grown in the open or under other species it branches at from 33 to 49 feet. . . . Up 
to 10 years of age, the shoots are a dark olive-green; beyond this age, stems and branches 
are ashy gray. 

Bark. — ... The white coloring of beech bark is not natural, but results from 
numerous lichens (Verrucaris Beformis et Epidermis; graphis scripta; Opegraphia 
varia, etc.) which coat its surface as early as the 10th year with their very thin thalli. 

Buds. — ... Beech buds are longer, more tapering, and more angular than 
those of any other species; they are covered with a large number of stipulate scales 
that are brown, dry, hairless, and shiny. . . . 

The strongest buds produce normal shoots, the internodes of which are well de- 
veloped; but there are many less vigorous ones . . . which only give rise to short- 
ened shoots, the leaves of which are not numerous, almost fasciculated, lack buds at 
the apex, and produce a single terminal bud. Resulting boughs . . . do not ramify, 
lengthen with extreme slowness, and contribute, on account of their great number, to 
increase the beech's foliage and cover. After 15 to 20 years boughs of this kind attain 
at most 4| to 6 inches in length with a diameter of from 0.16 to 0.2 inches. 

A few of the weakest produce neither shoots nor leaves. 

Tolerance. — Beech requires shelter during youth and cannot endure protracted 
exposure to the sun; it is very sensitive to spring frosts on account of its tendency to 
early growth. 

Foliage. — The consequence is that its crown is dense and foliage heavy. 

Aspect. — It prefers north and northwest exposures. 

Reproduction. — ... Sprouts come more frequently from adventitious buds 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 391 

. . . beech, especially if mixed with other species, is unsuitable for coppice; it 
rarely grows suckers. 

Leaves. — Leaves are alternate . . . they vary in size according to altitude; 
the higher the altitude, the smaller the leaves. At 3,900 feet the leaves are one-half 
the size they attain at sea level. An acre of high forest, fully stocked, produces as 
early as the 30th year practically equal quantities of htter until the end of the rota- 
tion — a yearly average of 3,664 pounds of air-dried leaves (to be reduced 20 per cent 
if oven dried). (Ebermayer.) This weight in litter is a good deal greater than that 
of the kilndried timber grown on an acre in the same time and under identical condi- 
tions. The above quantity of leaves would cover ten times the area they are grown on; 
decomposition is fairly slow and the accumulated leaves would form a thick lawyer on 
the ground. 

Seeding. — Beech produces seeds only at an advanced age, about 60 to 80 years in 
closed stands, 40 to 50 when in the open; it bears abundant masts only every 5 to 6 
years under the most favorable circumstances, but sometimes only every 15 to 20 years. 
In the latter case, between full seed crops partial ones take place. A remarkable fact 
about seeding is that, in certain years, there is such a scarcity of beech nuts that one 
could not gather a liter full even on a considerable area. Full seed crops are more 
common in the plains and on moderately sloping ground than in mountainous districts. 

Flower buds are formed as early as August and are easih' distinguished from foliage 
buds by their more plump shape. The abundance, scarcity, or lack of flower buds in- 
dicates almost to a certainty what the next mast crop will be. Consequently, the 
effect of spring frosts is not a satisfactory explanation of the irregular seed crops observed 
for this species. Obviously, the temperatures during the year when the buds start 
have a preponderating influence on bearing capacity. 

Beech nuts are very difficult to preserve even until the next spring; therefore it is 
better, as a rule, to sow them in the autumn; they keep perfectly in pits, however, if 
they are properly established. A kilogram contains about 1,600 seeds. 

Germination. — When sown in autumn, beech nuts germinate very early in the 
spring, toward the end of April. The tigella extends immediately under the cotyledon, 
pushing the latter about 4 inches above the ground. The two cotj-ledons, folded 
irregularly one over the other, develop into two wide, opposite, puljiv, reniform, full 
leaves (the upper side of these leaves is green and the under side silky white). This 
early germination, coupled with a rapid development of the tigella and cotyledon, and 
the tenderness of these rapidly grown tissues, render the young plant very liable to be 
affected by temperature variations, especially by spring frosts. 

Growth. — During the first years after sowing the plant grows slowly (about 4 
inches in height a year) but after 5 years it shoots up. At 40 to 45 years it reaches its 
maximum annual growth; but when 100 years old the tree does not increase appreciably 
in height. 

Each annual ring is from two to three times thicker near the top of the bole and at 
the beginning of the main l^ranches than at the base; this fact, which is true to a lesser 
degree for all the other species, enables beech to keep its cylindrical shape to a con- 
siderable height. 

Root System. — During the first few years of growth the tap root grows below the 
ground to about the same extent as the stem grows above it. At about 3 years from 
two to three oblique laterals, well provided with root hairs, are developed; at about 
12 to 15 years they grow rajjidly (at the expense of the tap root, which remains in- 
active); at 30 years of age the laterals cease growing and are gradually replaced by 
superficial, shelving roots, which sometimes protrude out of the ground for some dis- 
tance from the base of the tree. In rocky soil these roots frequently interlace with 



392 APPENDIX 

one another. To sum up, the whole root system is of no considerable depth (from 1 to 
1.6 feet) but widely extended; the volume of the root wood equals one-fifth the total 
contents of the bole and branches. 

Geographical Distribution. — The beech extends south and north from Mt. Etna 
in Sicily to the sixtieth degree, beyond Christiana in Norway, over a length of about 
24° of latitude; east and west; from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Coast, over about 
65° of longitude. France is included in this area, but the greater part of Spain and the 
whole of Algeria is excluded. 

Beech becomes a lowland tree only in the northern latitudes, on the North and 
Baltic seacoasts. Its limit of altitudinal distribution naturally increases the farther 
south you go; its maximum is not over 850 feet in Norway, but as high as 7,087 feet 
on the slopes of Mt. Etna. In France the limit of growth is 4,541 feet in the Vosges, 
5,223 feet in the Jura, 5,381 feet on Mont Cenis, 5,462 feet on Mont Ventous, and 5,577 
feet in the Pyrenees. 

The lower limits of the beech zone are less accurately known; it extends into the vine 
region but does not reach the valley bottoms where the soil as a rule precludes beech 
forests. 

Climate. — Toward the north and in the higher altitudes, cold limits the extension 
of beech, which ceases growing when the January mean temperature falls below 5° to 
6° C. (41° F. to 42.8° F.) in the plains and 6° to 7° C. (42.8° to 44.6° F.) on slopes. 

The southern limits are fixed by an excess of heat and consequent drying out due to 
an insufficient rainfall. Thus beech ceases to grow when a maximum of 44° C. (111.2° 
F.) or when the sum of the temperatures during the vegetative season exceeds 5,750° C. 
And yet, in order that beech may reach the above extreme limits, it requires from 
seven to eight rainy days during the summer months — June to August. 

Soil. — Porous, light, and even rocky ground is suitable for beech provided rains 
keep the soil fresh; compact, moist and marshy soils are absolutely harmful; this is 
why it does not generally grow in the rich alluvial soil of the broad valleys. 

The mineral character of the soil seems of no great consequence, since fine forests 
are found in sand, sand and rock, granite, porphyry, and pure clay; they seem to 
thrive best in the latter. 

Yet beech is one of the most exacting species in respect of mineral nutrition; accord- 
ing to the averages arrived at by Ebermayer after numerous experiments, a high forest 
takes from the soil 476 pounds of mineral elements, 70 of these only for timber and 406 
for leaves in order to produce 14,400 pounds of completely air-dried matter (timber 
and leaves) ; under the same conditions and to produce an equal solid volume, a forest 
would absorb only 139 pounds, in all about 37 for timber and 102 for leaves. The 
requirements of beech as regards mineral elements are, therefore, as compared with 
those of pine, in the ratio of 3.4 to 1. No doubt, as compared with some other species, 
the ratio would not be so great. 

Competition with Other Species. — Favored by its thick foliage and its ability to 
endure shade, beech . . . has taken the place of such light demanding trees as 
oak, pine and birch. This was the case in Denmark, Holland, and other countries 
where (as proven by the numerous charcoal pits found there) this tree did not formerly 
grow, while pine, judging from the amount of the pine debris, was plentiful. Beech 
is nowadays the dominant species of the forests of those countries, while pine has dis- 
appeared from them. Julius Caesar found no beech in England where to-day it is 
plentiful. 

Timber. — Despite morphological analogies, beech yields a timber very different 
from that of oak or chestnut. It is white when cut; it becomes reddish through exposure 
to air, and after seasoning becomes a uniform light red, without any well-marked 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 393 

distinction between the sapwood and heartwood. The heart of the old trees . . . 
colors a brownish red . . . with rather prominent but moderately close medullary- 
rays. It lacks phancy and easily becomes twisted and cracked; it is liable to rot and 
does not polish; when subjected to alternate drying and wetting it does not last long 
but is fairly durable under water and when constantly wet. 

Beech is not therefore a building timber; but, being easily worked, it is frequently 
used by a number of trades, such as wheelrights for felloes, by basket makers, shoe- 
makers, joiners, mechanics, turners, etc. It is one of the easiest woods to be thoroughly 
treated with preservatives; when so treated it makes good railway ties. Density, one 
of the most important properties of beech, depends on several circumstances such as 
altitude, latitude, aspect, soil, and whether grown in open or dense stands. It is in 
no way proportional to the thickness of the rings which vary from 0.27 to 0.36 of an inch. 

Fuel Value. — The most important use of beech is for fuel. The calorific power has 
been taken as a unit by the best authorities (G. L. Hartig, Werneck, I. Hartig) not on 
account of its having the highest fuel value, for some other species (yoke elm and sorb 
tree) exceed it, but because it is the best known and the most frequently used. As a 
matter of fact, the fuel value is proportional to and as variable as the density of the 
wood. Beech wood burns with a bright clear flame and gives embers which remain 
incandescent until completely burnt out. . . . Beech charcoal is highly prized 
for domestic purposes and for treating ores. 

By-Products. — The kernel of the beech nut contains from 15 to 17 per cent of its 
weight in a fat (non-siccative) oil which is edible raw, when extracted, and is quite 
suitable for lighting purposes. 

A heavy mast is for this reason an important source of profit both for the owners 
of the beech plantations and for those who buy the right to gather the fruit. An acre 
of 150-year-old beech high forest yields, in years when there is a mast, up to 57 bushels 
of beech nuts (Retz forest, according to Fortier) from which 409 pounds of oU may 
be extracted. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — The beech is best grown in high forest, and 
because of its dense crown and abundant litter it fertilizes the soil. . . . It is 
usually regenerated from seed and the tolerance of the seedlings makes complete natural 
regeneration all the easier. While it can be grown pure, it is advantageous to mix it 
with species of more rapid growth, since beech exerts a most favorable influence on 
their good development. On the other hand, it is necessary to guard against the tend- 
ency of the beech to again become dominant instead of remaining in the understory. 
. . . Beech can be managed under the selection system and then the trees furnish 
less wood than in the high forest. It does not retain its sprouting capacity long enough 
to permit advantageous management as simple coppice. Under this form of treat- 
ment the stand does not remain fully stocked except on open slopes and provided it is 
cut very young. Of all the forest species it is almost the only one which accommodates 
itself to treatment as selection coppice (furete). Retained as standards in the coppice- 
under-standards system, the beech has such a thick, full crown that it shades out all 
vegetation underneath; only short-bole trees are obtained which yield a small amount 
of sawlogs of mediocre quality. To sum up: The beech is a species that is especiaUy 
valuable in shallow sod and where the ground has been impoverished by grazing or by 
destructive treatment. . . . 

HORNBEAM 

(Carpinus betulus) 

Climate and Soil. — The hornbeam is a tree of the plains and valleys. In the 
mountains, such as the Vosges, Jura of the Central Plateau, it disappears abruptly and 
hardly becomes more than a bush. It is found throughout the entire part of France 



394 APPENDIX 

situated north of a line drawn between Grenoble and the mouth of the Gironde. It is 
very common in the northern and eastern departments. While it will grow on all kinds 
of soil, it shows a marked preference for fresh and deep ground. 

Tolerance. — The hornbeam, although it becomes quite hardy, has need of a nurse 
tree during its youth, because of its shallow rooting and the consequent danger if the 
soil dries out. It demands considerable light but not too much. On dry rocky soil, it 
usually succumbs to exceptional drought. On the other hand, in all regards it shows 
remarkable resistance to spring frosts. Its root system is weak and shallow. It is 
composed of numerous lateral roots, but the tap root soon disappears and the root system, 
as a whole, rarely extends deeper than 20 inches. Despite the shallow root system 
suckers are rare, but it sprouts from the stump with great facility. In the forest of 
Champenoux thickets of this species are so abundant that it is a serious obstacle to the 
natural regeneration of oak. The hornbeam begins to bear seed at an early age, at 20 
years or before. . . . The fruit of the hornbeam is a small nut which, on account of 
its lightness, is easily distributed. It only germinates the second spring after it matures. 

Growth Longevity. — Its growth is always slow, being much less than that of the 
oak or the beech. Sprouts, on the other hand, are quite rapid in growth for the first 
20 or 30 years, when it slows down quite materially. Whatever its origin, whether from 
seeds or sprouts, the hornbeam is always a secondary tree. It can live to 100 or 120 
years and even exceed 1.50 years under favorable conditions, and when it is silviculturally 
desirable to retain it in the stand. 

Wood Uses. — It furnishes firewood of the first quality, but it is not used for con- 
struction purposes. . . . Notwithstanding its hardness ... it is useful for 
the manufacture of miscellaneous utensils. . . . 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Hornbeam is only found pure in high forest because 
of silvicultural errors. Due to its slow growth it is always dominated by species in 
mixtures; as a secondary tree it is quite valuable as soil cover. Treated as coppice it 
produces up to quite an advanced age (50 to 60 years) very abundant sprouts which 
give good results. In proper situations it sprouts well, even under unfavorable condi- 
tions, and it is thus owing to its presence that certain coppice on almost sterile soil 
yields a considerable return. Its growth is too slow and its crown too low to enable it 
to form with profit a standard in coppice-under-standards. ... It has the same 
value as the beech as ground cover, but, of course, does not produce the same bole in 
high forest. 

HOLM OAK 

(Quercus ilex) 

Climate and Soil. — This southern species is rare on the Pacific Ocean but very 
common on the shores of the Mediterranean from Menton to Ceret, from the sea, as 
far inland as Digne, Sisteron, and Montelimart. It even extends as far north as Valina. 
It seems to prefer, in France at least, calcareous soils and is abundant along the Medi- 
terranean, except in the granite areas on the Maures and Esterel. . . . It is found 
in the Alps and in Provence up to an altitude of 2,460 to 2,600 feet, and in the Pyrenees 
up to 2,000 feet. 

Tolerance. — Holm oak is quite hardy and thrives on the hottest south slopes. Its 
evergreen foliage is quite light and it sprouts up to an advanced age. 

Root System and Seeding. — It is anchored solidly in the soil and has strong lateral 
roots. Is an early seodcn'; seed years occurring every 8 to 10 years; production con- 
tinues abundantly and regularly up to an advanced age. 

Growth Longevity. — Its growth is very rapid during youth, but it never reaches 
beyond the size of a third-class tree. It lives to be 300 years and more. 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 395 

Wood Uses. — The wood of holm oak is very hard, heavy, and extremely compact. 
It is difficult to work and its heavy wood and small size limits its use as construction 
wood. It makes excellent fuel. 

By-Products. — The bark yields excellent tannin; better than that of oaks that shed 
their leaves. The acorns, when they are fresh, have an agreeable taste and make excel- 
lent food when they are properly cooked. In several departments they are collected 
as an edible food. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Since it does not reach a large size, it is only 
suitable for simple coppice. It is often found in mixture with aleppo pine and with 
this species it forms an excellent understory, since it is fire-resistant. 

CORK OAK 3 

(Quercus suber L.) 

The cork oak is an oak with persistent leaves like the holm oak. . . . Both belong 
to the southern part of France where the first forms high forests, the second coppice. 
The economic importance of cork oak is considerable in the south of France, in Corsica, 
and especially in Algeria. Spain and Portugal also furnish cork which competes with 
our own in the markets. The botanists distinguish cork oak, properly called Quercus 
suber, and the western cork oak, Quercus suber var. occidentalis; the former being found 
in the Mediterranean (Algeria, Corsica, Provence, Pyrenees-Orientales), and the second 
belonging to the Atlantic flora (Gascogne, where towards the north it is of especial im- 
portance, beginning with the point of Leon). From our point of view it does not appear 
to be necessary to make this distinction, the two forms having the same requirements, 
furnishing the same product — cork — and being treated the same way. Both of them 
avoid calcareous soils and are confined to sandy soil. The length of their tap roots 
makes it necessary to have deep soils if they are to develop properly. The cork oak, 
although an xerophytic species, without doubt requires more moisture than does the 
holm oak. In Algeria it is infinitely more common in the province of Constantine, 
where the climate is quite rainy, than in Oran where it is very dry; in France it is found 
at the Maures and Esterel hills, which have a sufficient altitude to produce enough rain- 
fall, and in Gascogne where the climate is very hot but also quite humid. 

Regeneration. — When the cork oak forms pure stands they are always very open 
and usually even incomplete. (These pure stands, while common in Algeria, are rarely 
met with in the Maures and Esterel and do not exist at all, naturally at least, in the 
Gascogne.) On the other hand, the foliage of the tree is quite light. It therefore 
results that everywhere in the forest the soil is sufficiently open to permit the seed to 
germinate and develop, since the species is light demanding first of all. When cork oak 
is found in mixture with another species the stand becomes denser, but, since this other 
species, in France at least, is almost always maritime pine, whose cover is extremely 
light, the situation remains about the same from the point of view of regeneration. While 
this species exists in every part of the forest, without regeneration felhngs it has to be 
favored and assisted. Systematic fellings are not made in cork-oak stands, but the fell- 
ings tend to realize old cork oak whose production of cork has ceased to be remunerative. 

Freeing the Young. — One cannot say that the regeneration of cork oak can be 
left to itself. On the contrary it is necessary to give it cultural aid. In those forests 
in reahty where the soil is sandy and quite open, there exist thickets of evergreen shrubs 
in which tree heather often dominates and which is called maquis (similar to the term 
chaparral). Numerous species of small heather increase the density still more near the 
soil and make it so thick that it is not easy to penetrate. The acorns fall here and there 

3 Traite Pratique de Sylviculture, par A. Jolyet. Paris, J. B. Baillere et Fils, 1916. 



396 APPENDIX 

in this brush and the young oak, overwhelmed by such a thicket, does not receive the 
quantity of light which one would expect in such open stands. Seeds are often scattered 
by the birds, chiefly by the doves; in mixed forests of oak and pine often the oak seed- 
lings are found in the neighljorhood of the pine trees because the doves love to perch 
on the branches of the pine, which are the largest trees of the stand, and from there let 
fall the acorns which they have transported. Often seedlings are so suppressed by the 
heather that they cannot develop, remaining poor and stunted and finally often dis- 
appearing altogether. It is therefore necessary to take care to search out the oak 
seedlings in the midst of the brush and free them. 

Cutting Back the Young Poorly Formed. — The seedling which appears to have 
suffered from the heather cover to such an extent that its vitality is injured should 
be cut level with the ground, and after this operation the heather should be cut for a 
distance of 1 to 2 feet around the shoot. The sprouts which develop on this little 
stump will have even more vigor than do seedlings. Moreover, if in a stand of cork 
oak which has already attained a height of 4| to 6 feet, but whose growth appears slow, 
it is much better to cut them back in order to obtain good sturdy shoots in their place. 
These shoots have just about the same value as seedlings. This cutting back, it is true, 
has the objection of encouraging the formation of sprouts; the collection of cork oak 
being difficult on sprouts, it is better to choose between them when they have attained 
the height of about 6 feet and leave the best sprouts and cut the others. 

Division of a Forest of Cork Oak into Compartments. — Work such as this 
enables the improvement of cork-oak stands to favor whose regeneration there is no 
other method applicable. To execute the freeing and cutting back of seedlings syste- 
matically the forest should be divided into some fifteen compartments so that each one 
can be gone over every year to free the seedlings, cut back the poor sprouts, and thin the 
sprouts when they are too numerous. It would be a good plan to have this work 
coincide in each compartment with the removal of the mature oak. The cost of this 
work is small in comparison with the benefits received und the owner should pay for it 
without doubting its advisability. 

Precautions to Take against Fire. — The existence of brush is a perpetual danger 
of fire. ... It should be remarked, however, that the cork is an excellent insula- 
tion and that the violence of the fire is rarely enough, in France at least, to kill the cam- 
bium of the oak when they are protected by a sufficient thickness of tissue. The oak 
recently peeled, however, is very susceptible to the slightest fire. ... To avoid 
fires in any part of the forest becoming veritable disasters, it is therefore necessary to 
make sure that the trees recently peeled should not all be grouped in the same range. 

In order that the cork of a tree should attain the thickness demanded by commerce 
(27 to 29 milhmeters), the period varies according to the climate: 12 years in Algeria, and 
15 to 28 years in France. Taking for granted that the period of 15 years should be the 
one indicated by investigation, the forest should be treated as follows : 

Divide it into fifteen compartments and the first year bark all the oak in Compartment 
No. 1, the second year all those in Compartment No. 2, etc., and the fifteenth year all 
those in Compartment No. 15. In the sixteenth year the oak in Compartment No. 1 
will have had 15 years of growth and reached the proper thickness. One can then pro- 
ceed with new felling operations on trees of this compartment and continue indefinitely. 
But if, by misfortune, fire has broken out in a compartment where the bark has been 
removed from all the trees, every one will be destroyed and the compartment will be 
ruined without hope even of natural regeneration. Under such circumstances it would 
have been better to adopt another combination. The number of years necessary for 
the growth of the bark is divided by 3. For example 15/3 = 5; if the forest is divided 
then into the number of parts given in this quotient, each compartment would be 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 397 

divided into 5 parts. This being done, one-third of the oak of the first compartment is 
barked the first year, choosing the trees here and there over the whole extent of the 
compartment. The second and third years the work is continued similarly in Compart- 
ments Nos. 2 and 3. The sixteenth and seventeenth to the thirtieth j^ears the second 
third of the trees is barked in Compartments Nos. 1 to 15. The thirty-first and thirty- 
second to the forty-fifth years tlie third third is barked in each compartment. In the 
forty-sixth year the bark has reached the proper thickness on the trees in Compartment 
No. 1 which was peeled the first time. . . . This method appears to be more con- 
servative than peeling the trees in the entire compartment at one time. It is nearly the 
same idea that is expressed in the treatment of the Corsican pine when the selection 
system was adopted because of the fire danger in young even-aged stands which foUow 
the use of the shelterwood compartment method of regeneration. 



SILVER FIR 

(Abies pedinata) 

Size. — Silver fir is a tree of first-class size; it may, when from 180 to 200 years of 
age, reach 131 feet in height and 6.5 feet in diameter breast-high. Its longevity is 
very great, and some trees 800 years old have been observed in the Pyrenees. . . . 
A silver fir 207 feet high and 10 feet in diameter has been discovered in a Bohemian 
virgin forest (Hochstetter) . In France itself ... on the best soils, 131 feet in 
height is often exceeded. A silver fir in the Gerardmer State Forest is 164 feet high. 

Habit. — The straight, slender bole branches regularly. . . . At an advanced 
age . . . the crown becomes more and more flattened; this is the period when 
full seed crops are produced. . . . The loss of the leader or main shoot is more 
serious with fir than with any other species. Often this leader cannot grow out again, 
particularly if the tree is a veteran. . . . 

Root System. — The tree is well rooted. There is a tap root, 3 or more feet deep, 
which divides into long, stout laterals. When cut flush with the ground the stump 
and root wood is about 16 per cent of the total volume. 

Crown. — The foliage of fir is abundant and leaves may be persistent for 8 to 10 
years. . . . These leaves and young shoots are readily browsed by cattle and 
game. 

Bark. — Silver fir bark . . . is in most cases a characteristic silvery gray color 
. . . the thickness increases with age but rarely exceeds 1.18 to 1.57 inches. . . . 

Natural Grafting. — Silver fir has a growing bark up to an advanced age. This allows 
the bole, branch, or roots to easily grow together when the parts happen to remain in 
contact for some time. From this numerous vegetative phenomena arise. One of the 
most frequent and interesting phases is when the stump (after the tree has been felled) 
. . . continues to increase in diameter, and produces an excrescence which gradually 
covers the surface. . . . This growth ... is due to the extensive adhesion 
of one or more roots of the tree that has been cut down with those of a neighboring 
unfelled fir. The latter . . . acts as a wet nurse for the stump and causes a 
continuation of growth. 

Seeding. — Seeding is fairly regular and constant, having none of the irregularities 
that are so common with certain other species, such as pine, oak, and beech. 

The seed is easily distinguished by its irregular, truncated shape, its shiny brownish- 
yellow color, and its size which is larger than most other firs. It contains a great deal 
of turpentine which gives it a pungent, hot taste; it is covered by a brownish opaque 
husk, some remnants of which always remain, even when cleaned. There are 10,450 



398 APPENDIX 

fresh seeds, and 14,090 clean seeds to the pound, or 8,063 to the quart. It will not stand 
packing nor shipment and keeps only from autumn until the following spring. 

Germination. — The germination of seed sown in the spring takes place in 3 to 4 
weeks. After the young plant sprouts ... it has from 4 to 8 cotyledons (generally 
5). They are twice as long as and broader than ordinary cotyledons. . . . 

Seedling. — During the first 2 to 3 years all the vegetative activity concentrates in 
the deep-reaching tap root and in stem diameter increase. From about 3 to 4 years the 
seedling begins to ramify by producing annually from 1 to 2 lateral branches, first in 
one and then in the other direction . . . after the tenth year ramification becomes 
normally verticillate, and from that time vegetation is rapid if there is sufficient light. 

Tolerance. — Silver fir will bear protracted shade better than any other species. 
Under dense cover, saplings, 3 feet high and 0.79 to 1.18 inches in diameter, are often 
found which are no less than 60 to 70 years of age and which, if given space and light, 
will develop vigorously . . . and become splendid trees. Early vegetative activ- 
ity makes young fir liable to suffer acutely from spring frosts; they often lose their 
lateral shoots (the first to be developed). 

Timber. — Fir timber is formed only of tracheids and medullary rays and is almost 
entirely devoid of resiniferous channels . . . consequently it has no pronounced 
odor, and the resin is well disseminated. . . . 

The timber is white, though often tinted a very light reddish-brown. . . . There 
is no very appreciable difference, especially when dry, between the sapwood and the 
heartwood. The sapwood does not possess the quality of the heartwood and is more 
subject to rot. On the other hand, the sapwood is easily injected with preservatives, 
while the heartwood is very difficult to impregnate, as is the case with other similar 
resinous timbers, such as spruce, larch, cedar, and pine. 

The annual rings are very clearly defined on account of the great difi"erence in color 
and in hardness between the spring and autumn tissues. The lack of homogeneity in 
fir timber (formed of cylindrical zones of alternately soft and hard wood) is evident 
when it is being cut into firewood. It has a distinct tendency to spht in a circular 
direction. . . . In fir timber, as in all those of non-homogeneous structure . . . 
breaks will occur in the direction of the less resisting tissues, which . . . correspond 
to the soft spring rings . . . (ring shake). ... Its shade-enduring quahty 
means that rings close together may be followed by wide rings of annual growth — 
obviously a defect. 

Specific Gravity. — The density of fir wood is extremely variable and seems to 
increase with southern latitudes, or as the trees have more space in which to develop 
their crowns; on the whole it is superior to that of spruce and varies from 0.381 to 
0.640. 

The horizontal strength and resiliency of fir timber are considerable and have been 
ascertained by numerous tests. ... It was found that fir from the Aude Depart- 
ment was superior to any indigenous and exotic timber except the longleaf pine (of 
the United States). . . . Fir timber will not last very long if exposed to moisture. 

Uses. — The large size, good quality, and abundance of fir timber make it one of the 
commonest building materials for planks, boards, beams, laths, etc.; it is even used 
for masts. It splits easily and is good for basket making, shingles, and roofing. 

Fuel Value. — According to G. L. Hartig the average fuel value of fir as compared 
with beech is as 69 is to 100, and is inferior to spruce. It is poor fuel, burning with a 
bright flame but crackling a great deal and smoking badly. 

It should be pointed out, however, that the branch-wood (Vosges) which is formed 
of very thin rings (the density is therefore higher) makes far superior cordwood than 
the stump or bole. . . . 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 399 

Habitat. — Silver fir does not extend beyond tlie limits of Europe except to the East, 
where it penetrates for some distance (beyond the Sea of Marmora) into Anatolia. 
Its somewhat restricted area is in the shape of an irregular ellipse, whose main axis 
rests east and west, reaching from the western Pyrenees, in the neighborhood of the 
Gulf of Gascony, to beyond Constantinople, over a length of about 32° of longitude; 
the smaller north and south axis, from Cologne to Mt. Etna, extends over 14° of lati- 
tude. Ireland, England, Belgium, Holland, Northern Germany, Sweden, and Norway, 
and the whole of Russia are beyond the northern and eastern natural limits of this 
species . . . also Spain, exclusive of the Pyrenean slopes, Sardinia, southern 
Sicily, and Greece. There is a possibility that silver fir may be found in the Caucasus. 
In France, it is found only east and south of a zigzag line, which starts from Epinal, 
and passes by Bourg, Clermont, Aurillac, Carcassone (to reach along the Pyrenees) 
and down to Bayonne. 

The distribution of fir within its habitat area is most irregular; eastwards it is scattered 
amongst beech and spruce, but, as one goes westward, it becomes more plentiful so that 
it reaches its maximum development about the western limits of the area and forms 
pure stands or is the most important species. It may be seen pure (in France) in the 
Pyrenees, Upper Corsieres, Cevennes, the Auvergne, Forez and Loire Mountains, the 
Dauphine Alps, and principally the Jura and Vosges; (Germany) in the Schwarzwald 
(Black Forest) and the Franconian Hills. 

Situation. — Silver fir (Frigoris comes et causa, as Linna?us put it) is essentially a 
species of the mountains . . . above the vine and oak but below the spruce. 
Coming almost into the plains at northern latitudes ... it reaches between 1,.300 
and 4,2.50 feet altitude in the Vosges; 1,500 to 1,960 feet in the Jura; up to 4,900 feet 
in the Monts-Dore, .5,590 feet in Corsica, 6,390 feet on Mt. Etna group, and 6,397 
feet in the French Pyrenees on northern exposures. 

Soil. — It seeks deep, cool, fertile soils, avoiding compact, marshy or peaty ground. 
The mineral nature of the soil is of minor importance, provided its physical require- 
ments are met. In the Jura, on limestone soil, the fir forests are equal if not superior 
to the best grown in the Vosges on silica or granite. 

Conditions of Vegetation. — There must be a mean August temperature of at 
least 15° C. (59° F.), with a maximum of not over 39° C. (102.2° F.); mean January 
temperature not below 5° C. (41° F.), nor above 27° C. (80.6° F.), with a vegetative 
rest of at least 3 months, and plenty of moisture. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — The fir, like other indigenous conifers, should be 
treated as high forest. It forms very dense stands. A fir forest, left to itself, is always 
many-storied. ... A thick cover results in retaining the fertility of the soil, as 
well as its freshness. ... In addition the fir can be treated in selection stands. 
Moreover, in all forests which have been injured by grazing or by excessive exploitation, 
the natural regeneration is never lacking, even under a complete canopy. Unless local 
climatic conditions prevent it, the fir forms a regular high forest. . . . When it 
has stopped its height growth its crown becomes open, exposed, and thin, so the soil, 
insufficiently protected by the cover . . . runs wild. . . . This makes natural 
regeneration often difficult and sometimes even impossible. . . . The fir forms 
excellent pure stands, but it is preferable to mix it with other species, notably beech 
or spruce. The mixture depends on the conditions of the altitude. . . . The fir 
makes an excellent mixture with broadleaved trees or shrubs which protect the ground. 



400 APPENDIX 

SCOTCH PINE 

{Pinus sylvestris) 

Climate and Soil. — Scotch pine is the tree of the plains and sandy hUls. In France 
it is found growing naturally in the Vosges up to an altitude of 3,600 feet, in the Central 
Plateau up to 4,900 feet, in the Alps up to 5,600 feet, and in the Pyrenees up to 6,560 
feet. It ordinarily prefers southern exposures. Except in the aleppo and maritime 
pine areas, Scotch pine has been extensively used in reforestation ; both in the plains and 
in the mountains its range has been widely extended by artificial means. While it wiU 
grow on compact soils, it much prefers those which are loose and porous. 

Tolerance. — Scotch pine has a light, open crown, even up to advanced age; seed- 
lings are light demanding and will not develop in very dense stands. It requires plenty 
of space to develop its crown. . . . While this species withstands winter and 
spring frosts, more than any other tree, it is liable to damage by insects and fungus, 
especially when growing outside its natural habitat. The tree also avoids the summits 
that are exposed to violent winds; nevertheless it appears to resist the rigour of winter, 
but after its crown exceeds the usual depth of snow it may suffer damage. . . . 

Root System and Seeding. — The root system varies according to the ground. In 
a light, deep soil the tap root develops and is the essential part of the root system up 
to 30 or 40 years. After this period the laterals increase in vigor and have a tendency to 
replace the tap root. On other soils the tap root stops growth quite early and the later- 
als soon replace it. 

Scotch pine begins early to bear seed, and isolated trees produce cones with good seed 
as early as 15 years. Ordinarily, in stands, it does not bear until about 50 years and 
even after. On the whole, some cones are borne every year, but seed is abundant only 
every 3 to 5 years. 

Growth Longevity. — When adapted to the situation, the Scotch pine is a tree of 
large size, which reaches 98 to 131 feet in height, but rarely exceeds 3.2 to 6.5 feet in 
diameter breast-high. ... Its growth, quite slow in the North, is infinitely more 
rapid in the southern zone. Its longevity is very great. In the plains, where it has 
been introduced, it lives a much shorter life. 

Wood and Its Uses. — The wood is of first quality in the northern climate and in the 
mountains, but becomes of secondary value, as the growth increases, in the milder zones. 
In the latter case the proportion of sapwood is considerable as compared with heartwood. 
This heartwood, while of good quality, is far less valuable for lumber . . . than 
the Scotch pine of Norway and Finland. As fuel it is better than the fir and spruce 
and is much sought after by bakers. . . . It is much used for paper pulp. 

By-Products. — Scotch pine is not tapped for turpentine, but the stumps, when 
distilled, yield tar and charcoal of good quahty. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — The Scotch pine should be treated as regular high 
forest. In pure stands, in suitable localities, the young stand maintains the soil up to 
25 or 30 years; afterwards, when the stand becomes more open, natural regeneration 
becomes quite difficult under the pure veterans. This explains why, in run-down forests, 
one is often obliged to resort to artificial regeneration which, however, is quite easy, 
either by plantations or by seeding. Scotch pine grows well with beech, fir, or spruce, 
and, thanks to its rapid growth, remains dominant and furnishes an excellent yield. 
These mixtures are unfortunately much too rare in France, and, under the circumstances, 
it would be valuable to create mixed stands artificially. In the high mountains it is 
possible to treat it under the selection system. ... On low-grade soil ... it 
is indispensable to retain every kind of vegetation (as a soil cover). Whether it is pure 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 401 

or mixed, Scotch pine is easy to manage. All that is necessary is to give the best trees 
plenty of light in order that they may develop their crown with freedom. ... It 
is a valuable species for valleys and low mountains. 

MARITIME PINE 

{Pinus maritima) 

Root System. — Maritime pine develops a strong tap root and laterals; this makes 
it absolutely wind-firm and suitable for forestation on the so-called "moving sand" of 
the Landes. As with silver fir, sometimes roots of felled trees graft with those left 
standing, thus furnishing nourishment to stumps. 

Seed Capacity. — Seed crops begin early (sometimes at 15 years of age), yield abun- 
dantly, and are almost continuous through middle age. . . . The seed is usually 
of good quality and retains its germinating power for 3 to 4 years. It sprouts 15 days 
after spring sowing and produces hardy plants with eight cotyledons which grow rapidly 
when fully exposed to the direct rays of the sun. There are 10,000 seeds to the pound 
and 12,080 to the quart. 

Habitat. — Maritime pine occupies an area somewhat similar to that covered by 
aleppo pine, but is somewhat more restricted and extends farther to the west. It is 
found west and east from Portugal to Greece, over 30° of longitude; north and south 
from Dalmatia and the Maures and I'Esterel (at Cannes) to Sicily and Algeria, a distance 
of some 10° of latitude. Within this area it occupies essentially shore and insular sites, 
never reaching far from the sea. In Corsica, however, it ascends to 3,280 feet on hills 
facing the sea and to 4,265 feet in Grenada. Its maximum yield is in the west, where, 
in Gascony, it forms extensive pure forests. As you proceed eastward the tree becomes 
smaller and is more scattered. Its optimum region is the opposite of that of aleppo pine. 
There is but little maritime pine in Algeria, it is common in Corsica, on the shore of the 
Mediterranean, especially in the Maures and I'Esterel, in the Almeres hills, and along 
the foot of the Pyrenees. It is especially dominant from Bayonne to the Sables d'Olonne. 
Its habitat has been considerably increased by artificial means. It has been used suc- 
cessfully in central France in mixture with the Scotch pine in reclamation work in the 
Sologne marshes. 

Soil. — Its optimum growth is on sandy soils; it does not thrive on clay. ... Its 
failure to grow on clay soils is explained by the fact that it absorbs too much lime and 
does not get enough potash and iron. If this mineral requirement is met it will grow 
on almost any soil> except clay, but prefers light, deep, fresh soils; it will, however, 
grow on rock soils, such as granite, porphyry, and schist. 

Tolerance. — While it will stand cold (even the climate of Lorraine), in central and 
western France, it is seriously damaged by severe winters. In 1879 to 1880 whole forests 
in the Sologne were frost-killed. North of Paris its growth is slow, since it demands a 
mean annual temperature of at least 12° C. (54° F.) with a winter average never below 
6° C. (43° F.), but, given suitable climatic conditions, its growth is remarkably active; 
it often forms two whorls of branches a year. 

Timber. — The sapwood is white; the heartwood varies from light red to more or 
less dark red-brown. The grain is coarse and the annual rings wide and very conspicu- 
ous. It is quite hard, heavy, and pliant, and yields more resin than any other conifer. 
The numerous and large resin ducts, which radiate longitudinally, appear in the heart- 
wood a brownish-red on account of being impregnated with resin. Its specific gravity, 
when air dried, is from 0.524 to 0.769. It is employed somewhat for ship building, 
construction purposes, railway ties, telegraph poles, piling, and mine props. It is 
sawed into boards, planks, staves, lath, and boxboards. When used as fuel it gives a 



402 APPENDIX 

bright, clear flame, but does not hold the fire. It crackles a great deal when burned 
and throws out innumerable sparks. Trees that have been tapped last longer in the 
ground than untapped timber. The tapping, however, slows up the increment. . . . 
Tapped trees have less sapwood than those which have not been tapped, and the wood 
is heavier, harder, richer in resin, more durable, and of greater fuel value. The method 
of tapping maritime pine is described in detail in Chapter VII. 

By-Products. — It yields turpentine paste, spirits of turpentine, colophony, rosin, 
pitch, grease used for machine and axle lubricant, lamp black, fire lighters, basket ma- 
terial, etc.; the needles are sometimes woven into a sort of cotton wool. A great many 
mine props are exported annually. 

NORWAY SPRUCE 

{Picea excelsa) 

The Norway spruce is a tree of very large size, with a straight, cylindrical bole that 
may reach up to 131 feet and more in height. Wessely asserts that in the Carpathian 
Mountains some trees of this species are 223 feet high and 3.5 feet in diameter at breast 
height. Its longevity is from 400 to 500 years. 

Habit. — Spruce . . . has slender persistent branches . . . that form a 
bushy, pyramidal, narrow, elongated, pointed non-truncated top up to the most ad- 
vanced age. ... Of all (European) forest species, spruce probably forms the 
densest stands and yields the largest amount of wood. . . . Spruce can be readily 
pruned and makes close and impenetrable hedges. 

Root System. — Its root system is shallow, without a tap root, but with somewhat 
slender laterals; consequently this tree cannot withstand wind pressure. The stump 
yields on an average of 16.5 per cent of the total volume when cut flush with the ground; 
14.7 per cent for the stump itself, and 1.8 per cent only for roots. (T. Hartig.) 

Seed. — Seed crops are more intermittent and irregular than with pine, and, accord- 
ing to the locality, are abundant only every 2 or 6 or even 8 years; normally seeding 
begins at 30 years of age. If cones are sometimes seen on trees which have not reached 
this age (chiefly in plantations), care should be taken not to gather them, for, almost 
always, they only yield sterile seeds. The least heat is sufficient to cause the cones to 
open and release the seed. . . . The abundance of seeds and the ease with which 
they are extracted account for the low price. When fresh, with the wings on, they run 
56,360 to the pound and 62,660 to the quart. Spruce seeds retain their germinating 
vigor for from 3 to 4 years. If sown in the spring they wfll germinate after 4 or 5 
weeks; they contain a non-siccative oil fat (instead of turpentine) and consequently 
have a pleasant taste. 

The Seedling. — The seedling . . . usually has nine cotyledons; within a year 
it elongates its plumule into a young shoot with one to three very small laterals . . . 
by the end of the first year the cotyledons have already dried up and the plant is from 
2 to 3 inches in height. ... At 5 years of age it is, under good conditions, from 
10 to 12 inches taU. 

Tolerance. — With its shallow root system the spruce requires shelter during youth, 
so that the surface of the ground, where it is planted, should not become dry; but it 
requires light and has not the same vigor that pine has under partial cover; it dies out 
rapidly under complete shade. If, in mixed spruce and pine forests, the soil often 
reproduces to pine under spruce stands, no other reason need be given, other than the 
ability of the pine to endure heavy shade where spruce could not exist. . . . The 
tap root stops growing after the first year and produces numerous very slim laterals 
that spread in all directions. . . . Spruce bark is reddish-brown in color. . . . 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 403 

Distribution. — Spruce does not extend as far south as does pine, but it reaches 
much farther north, and its range is far more extensive. It is irregularly distributed; 
its narrowest zone is southwestward. The region occupied by spruce broadens as 
you go through Central Europe in a northeasterly direction, from the Maritime Alps, 
a httle below 44°, on the one side, to near the Iceland Sea, not far from Cape North 
(69°) . In France, there is little spruce west of a line drawn from the Alps to the Vosges; 
nor in Belgium, Holland, lower North Germany (up to the Vistula River), Denmark, 
and the British Isles. To the south, Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy (except the Lom- 
bard Alps and Venetia), Greece, and the greater part of Turkey are all outside the spruce 
zone. So it is with southern and eastern Russia where Norway spruce does not extend 
beyond Moscow and Archangel (39° longitude). . . . (The Siberian Picea, which 
goes farther north, is, as yet, inaccurately dehmited). 

Habitat. — In the north (in Norway for example), spruce comes to sea level, but, as 
regards its upper limit, scarcely reaches higher than 655 feet. ... In the Tyrol 
(at 46° 45' north latitude), spruce grows up to 6,807 feet; in the Engadine (at 44° 40'), 
up to 6,926 feet; at Mont Ventoux (44°), up to 5,643 feet. As the upper hmit extends, 
the tree leaves the plains and valley bottoms. . . . The lower limit is about 2,000 
feet in the Vosges and Jura Mountains, and 2,600 feet in the Maritime Alps. In 
France, therefore, spruce is distinctly a mountain species which reaches up to the Alpine 
region and is characteristic of a higher vegetative zone than is the silver fir. . . . 

Soil. — Any moist soil, no matter what its geological and mineralogical formation, is 
suitable for spruce, provided it is neither too compact nor too porous. A peaty soil, 
while not favorable, is not absolutely objectionable. In dry and arid soil spruce can 
sometimes live, but it does not prosper. Under such conditions the foliage is yellow 
rather than a dark green color (so generally characteristic), the needles short, the cones 
plentiful but half grown (one-third or one-fourth the usual size). 

Vegetation. — Spruce requires a mean July temperature of at least 10° C. (50° F.), 
but not more than 18° 75' C. (66° F.); a mean January temperature not below 12° 5' C. 
(54° 5' F.) (Willkomm). It requires, above all, a moist atmosphere, frequent rainfalls, 
and heavy dews so that the surface soil may be kept fresh — absolutely necessary for 
such a shallow-rooted species. 

Timber. — Spruce wood is generally whiter than pine; some spruce from northern 
Europe, however, is very light red (like Scotch pine) and is indicative of inferior quality. 
This reddish spruce timber comes from trees grown in marshy soils, chiefly of the Siberian 
variety. . . . The sapwood has the same value as the heartwood; as a matter of 
fact, it is scarcely distinguishable. . . . Spruce boards generally have smaller but 
more numerous knots than pine. In most cases, these branch knots are loose. 
Density varies according to the growth conditions; for air dried timber the specific 
gravity varies from 0.337 to 0.597. 

Uses. — Spruce timber is lighter and weaker than pine but serves the same uses. 
. . . It is soft, spongy, and of inferior quality at lower elevations because of too 
rapid growth. Near the upper limits of habitat, however, it . . . may be worth 
from one-quarter to one-fifth more than pine timber. To sum up: it is a first-rate 
building and manufacturing timber. . . . The straight, clear boles make excellent 
masts. . . . The regular fiber makes splitting very easy . . . it is prepared 
for baskets and for shingles . . . and almost exclusively (under the name of 
"sounding wood"), for sounding boards of musical instruments — pianos, violins, etc. 
. . . Match factories also use considerable quantities of spruce wood. Reduced 
by machinery to a soft paste or pulp it supplies, besides, the raw material for high 
quality papers and pasteboards. 

Fuel Value. — The fuel value of spruce, as compared with beech, is as 70 is to 100. 



404 



APPENDIX 



. . . According to T. Hartig the fuel value of spruce, as compared with other species 
under identical vegetative conditions, is as follows : 



Spruce 

Scotch pine 

Beech 

Oak 

Birch 

Alder 



Rotation, 
years 



120 
120 
120 
120 
60 
60 



Fuel value 



5,110 
3,600 
3,500 
3,150 
2,S90 
2,200 



By-Products. — Spruce is tapped for rosin by . . . means of long, narrow, 
longitudinal incisions or slashes clean through the bark; the large radiating channels 
in the liber allow the turpentine to ooze out abundantly. Those slashes need only be 
widened from time to time, through the new liber layers, in order to secure the gum 
product up to a very old age. This operation is quite profitable and is practiced on 
an extensive scale in the North; but it weakens the trees and decreases their size. In 
France it is all the more objectionable since in most cases . . . instead of just 
gashing the bark, deep cuts are needlessly made into the wood. . . . Turpentine, 
colophony, "Burgundian" tar, and lamp black are manufactured. The bark contains 
some tannin and is used (in higher Jura, for instance) for curing leather; for this purpose 
the bark of trees from 60 to 80 years of age is preferred. In some countries the natives 
pulverize the inner liber (freed from its rhytidome) and obtain a kind of flour which, 
either pure or mixed with barley flour, is used to make bread. The seed contains 
from 20 to 25 per cent of fat, non-siccative oil. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Like the fir, the spruce should be maintained in a 
dense stand. . . . More than any other conifer it can survive in very dense stands 
which enable it to return very large yields. It is advantageously managed as high 
forest, but when it is very exposed or liable to wind-fall it is better to mix it with beech, 
fir, or larch. . . . On account of its hardiness it is a good species for natural re- 
generation by clear cutting. No other species is so easily transplanted. It is adaptable 
to most any sod. . . . 

EUROPEAN LARCH 
{Larix europea) 

Larch is a large-sized tree, with a slender, straight bole 98 to 115 feet in height and up 
to 27 inches in diameter. ... In Silesia, a larch has been measured which is 178 
feet high and 3.3 feet in diameter, breast-high. 

Habit. — The crown is shaped like a narrow, long acute pyramid. . . . The 
branches are numerous, tapering, thin and generally pendant; the branches of forest- 
grown trees form only one-sixth the total volume (stump wood included). 

Root System. — There are several main roots. These penetrate to a considerable 
depth at oblique angles, and from these spring a large number of rootlets; the tap root 
is obliterated within the first few years. The actual stump and root timber comprises 
about 10 per cent or 11 per cent of the total volume. 

Leaves. — The first spring leaves of the larch are almost exclusively in bundles; 
one month later solitary leaves appear and also the young shoots. . . . The leaves 
form a somewhat thin crown that is light demanding. 

Seeding. — When grown in temperate regions the larch may seed early; but seeds 
are then sterile and it is only in middle age that fructification is regular. The cones 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 405 

sometimes open in autumn, but usually during the following spring. They are per- 
sistent and, when empty, are brownish-black in color; they are readily distinguishable 
from the new reddish-gray cones. 

Seed. — Larch seed falls in March; if the ground is then covered with crusted snow 
seeds in the hollows where they have been carried by the wind are easily gathered with 
a broom. Another way of gathering seed in March is by beating the branches with a 
pole and collecting them in sheets at the foot of the tree. Seeds so gathered are better 
in quality than those obtained by artificially opening the cones by heat. The suc- 
cessful extraction of seeds is difficult if the heat is at all above the normal 15° C. to 
17° C. (59° F. to 62.6° F.). The rosin contained in the cones becomes fluid and seals 
the scales. Seeds purchased in the market are rarely more than 34 per cent to 45 per cent 
good; sometimes much less. An easy test may be made by putting the seeds into water; 
those that float are usually sterile. . . . When seeds are fresh they average 58,000 
to the pound, 56,300 to a quart. If fresh, germination is rapid — within 3 to 4 weeks. 
They may be preserved for 3 to 4 years, but in the latter case the germination is propor- 
tionately slower. Seedlings may not sprout until the second or even the third year. In 
the lowlands a good plan is to soak the seeds in water for 10 to 15 days before spring 
sowing; the softening greatly facilitates and hastens germination. 

Seedlings. — Seedlings have five to seven cotyledons (generally six) and immediately 
produce a shoot with solitary unindented leaves (leaves of silver fir and pine are indented 
at the edges). At first small and slender, the seedling reaches, under favorable condi- 
tions, some 4 to 5 inches in height at the end of the first year; its tap root is then from 6 
to 10 inches according to the soil. The seedling grows to 2 to 3 feet in height at the end 
of 2 or 3 years. 

Bark. — The bark is somewhat similar to that of the pines, both on account of its 
creviced, scaly surface and because of its structure and method of growth. There are, 
however, some differences. 

Distribution. — Its habitat coincides with the high mountains of Central Europe 
forming a narrow strip westerly and southwesterly, from the Maritime and Dauphine 
Alps to the North and South Carpathians, about 20 degrees, from the third to the 
twenty-third degree of longitude. Its southern limit is beyond Nice; its northern limit 
does not reach in the Carpathians beyond the fiftieth degree of latitude. This species 
thus is confined to the high mountain areas of middle latitudes and does not extend (like 
the spruce or silver fir) to the northern plains. Perhaps it would not find there the 
sum of the temperature, that is 1,672° C, that it requires during the vegetative period. 
Spruce is less exacting, being satisfied with 1,450° C. 

Larch gi-ows naturally in France only in the Savoy, Dauphine, and Provence Alps, 
where it begins at an altitude of 3,281 feet in the North, 3,940 feet in the South, and 
reaches up to 8,200 feet (and with cembric pine, the extreme limits of vegetation, in the 
Alpine pastures) . 

The vegetative requirements are: At least 1° C. (33.8° F.) and at most 8° C. (46.4° F.) 
annual temperature with a rest of at least 4 months. Larch prefers well-sheltered coves 
at high altitudes but does well on calcary, dolomite, schist, or sandy soils, if they are 
sufficiently light, fresh, and deep. Larch will not stand crowding; the forests are 
therefore always open, with fine grass which can be regularly cut or grazed. It even 
helps to restore the range where impoverished by overgrazing. 

Endeavors have been made to grow larch outside its natural habitat. ... It will 
often grow with remarkable vigor during youth, but shows early signs of premature de- 
chne. In these cases its timber is of poor quality (but very useful ... for hop poles). 

Timber. — Larch timber has a very conspicuous and well defined light yellow sap- 
wood, containing six to twenty annual rings which form as a rule a very thin layer. 



406 APPENDIX 

This is especially so with slow-growing veterans. The heartwood is reddish-brown, 
veined with rings of darker colored fallwood. . . . When completely air dried wood 
from mountain-grown trees has a specific gravity of 0.557 to 0.686 — 0.456 to 0.531 if 
grown at lower elevations. 

Uses. — Larch is the " mountain oak." Its timber is one of the most valuable to be 
found in French forests; its complete lignification and its great richness in rosin make it 
very durable and the regularity and thinness of the annual rings, as well as their ar- 
rangement in alternate soft and hard zones, give it remarkable strength and resiliency. 
It does not crack; it is not attacked by insects, and is suitable for . . . mast and 
ship building. In Russia it is even used for ship-ribs . . . shingles, staves, and 
barrels made of this wood have the advantage of allowing very little evaporation; vine 
props and water pipes made of larch will last almost indefinitely. 

Fuel Value. — As firewood larch crackles and throws sparks, even more so than 
other resinous woods. On the other hand it has a fairly high fuel value. Charcoal 
obtained from larch, as compared with beech, is of good quality and better than that 
from pine or spruce. 

Tapping for Resin. — Turpentine is fairly abundant in larch. . . . There are 
various methods of tapping for resin; the following is practiced in the Valais by the 
Lombardians : 

With an auger 1.2 inches in diameter holes are bored 2 feet from the ground. These 
holes are inclined upward a httle . . . point to the center of the tree but do not 
reach it. . . . The openings are fitted with wooden or bar gutters and a trough 
placed underneath. A tree may yield on an average 85 to 100 grams of turpentine a 
year for 40 to 60 consecutive years if care is taken to plug thoroughly the holes during 
winter; the total quantity may reach 5.5+ pounds (Varchland). ... It seems 
that larch trees so tapped . . . are fit only for firewood. . . . 

In the southern Tyrol another method is used. In the spring a horizontal (1.1 inches 
in diameter) hole is bored at the base of thrifty trees right to the centre; if the tree 
stands on a slope the hole is bored into the upper side. The aperture is securely plugged 
with a wooden stopper. Turpentine gathers in the hole during the summer and in the 
autumn it is scooped out with a specially shaped spoon; then the plug is put back. At 
the end of a year another quantity of turpentine is scooped out and so on from year to 
year (Hugo Vohl). This method, though infinitely less productive, does not injure 
the trees and there is no deterioration in the quality of the timber (Wessely). 

Larch turpentine is known as "Venetian Turpentine" . . . it is purer and better 
quality than that distilled from pine. 

By-Products. — Larch leaves secrete a peculiar resinous substance, which solidifies 
in the shape of small whitish grains, and which is prescribed by doctors as an aperient 
under the name of "Brian(;'on Manna." Young bark is used for tanning, and in some 
German States larch is extensively cultivated on account of the excellent quality of its 
bark; it is used also for brown dyeing. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — In the high mountains where the larch is found 
the stands must combat the rigorous climate, the rough soil, steep slopes, and grazing. 
Moreover, the management of any forest is always a delicate matter because the least 
error may possibly occasion irreparable disasters. Because of its extreme intolerance 
the larch does not grow well in more than one story. Rather open stands composed of 
trees of the same height is preferable to any other method. To continue such a condition 
it is necessary to favor it in every way, not only when young, but even toward the end 
of the rotation when regeneration is necessary. If there is sufficient light the natural 
seeding is possible in the grass which usually covers the ground in larch forests. At its 
lower limits of growth the larch can be advantageously mixed with spruce, mountain 



IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 



407 



pine, and Scotch pine. It can even be treated under the selection system adapted to 
these other species. In pastures at high elevations, when retained in groups, it protects 
the cattle and at the same time furnishes excellent products. . . . 

ALEPPO PINE 

{Pinus halepensis) 

Soil and Climate. — This Mediterranean species is very liable to damage from 
winter frosts. . . . It is confined to the limestone soils of the temperate Provence. 
It grows satisfactorily on rocky slopes stripped of vegetation and scorched by the sun. 

Tolerance. — The seedling is very hardy but intolerant. On account of its drought- 
resisting qualities it is a very valuable tree. 

Root System and Seeding. — The tap root is the dominant root, but the laterals 
are well developed and, unfortunately, remain shallow. Aleppo pine bears abundant 
seed at an early period and it is characterized by the persistence of the open cones, which 
remain attached to the branch for an indefinite period. 

Growth Longevity. — The aleppo pine has quite a rapid growth, nevertheless it does 
not exceed the size of a secondary species. Toward 20 years it forms a tree with a 
slender, sweeping bole ; when the growth slows up at an advanced age the crown increases 
in size and becomes umbrella-shaped Uke the stone pine {Pinus pinea) . 

Wood and Its Uses. — The wood, of mediocre quality, is, nevertheless, used con- 
siderably by carpenters, and furnishes quite a good deal of saw timber for packing boxes 
and crates. As a fire wood it is valuable for certain kinds of factories. 

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Aleppo pine is usually not found pure. Ordinarily it 
forms forests where grazing is allowed, in mixture with holm oak and other broadleaf 
trees. These are managed as coppice, with the aleppo pine reserved until it reaches 
merchantable dimensions. Under these conditions the tree regenerates very early. 

TREES, SHRUBS, AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE 

MOUNTAINS 



TREES ^ 



Large-leaved Hnden {Tilia platyphyllos). 
Sycamore maple (Acer pseudo-platanus) . 
Tree of heaven (Ailanthus glandulosa). 
Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) . 
Scotch labiu^num (Laburnum vulgare). 
Sweet cherry (Cerasus avium). 
Mahaleb cherry (Cerasus mahaleb). 
Whitebeam (Sorbus aria). 
Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia). 
Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior). 
Scotch elm (Ulmus montana). 
Beech (Fagus sylvatica). 
Chestnut (Castanea saliva). 
Sessile oak (Quercus robur sessiliflora) . 
Holm oak (Quercus ilex). 
Hop-hornbeam (Oslrya carpinfolia) . 
Silver birch (Betula verrucosa). 
Black alder (Alnus glutinosa). 
Grey alder (Abius incana). 



Green alder (Alnus viridis). 

Willow (Salix). 

White poplar (Populus alba). 

Aspen poplar (Populus tremula). 

Black poplar (Populus nigra). 

LTpright cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) . 

Silver fir (Abies pectinata). 

Norway spruce (Picca excelsa). 

Em-opean larch (Larix euro pea). 

Mount Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica). 

Scotch pine (Pinus sylveslris). 

Corsican pine (Pinus laricio). 

Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca). 

Pyrenees black pine (Pinus laricio mon- 

speliensis) .^ 
Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). 
Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster). 
Swiss stone pine (Pimis cembra). 



* See page 68, Vol. I, Restauration et Conservation des Terrain en Montagnes. 

^ Salzmann first published this form as Pinus monspeliensis. Later Dunal published 
it as Pinus sahmannii, probably not knowing that Salzmann had previously described 
and published it as P. monspeliensis. Salzmann's name must, of course, have prece- 
dence over Dunal's P. sahmannii, and this fact would prevent the use of the common 
name "Salzmann pine." 



408 APPENDIX 

SHRUBS 

Common clematis (Clematis vitalba). 
"Tanners' sumac" (Coriaria myrtifolia) . 
Rest-harrow {Ononis fruticosa) . 

Kidney vetch (the species used was proba]:)ly A. vulneraria, "sand clover," or "wound- 
wort"). 
Smooth-fruited apricot {Prunus briganiiaca) . 
Sea buckthorn {Hippophe rhamnoides). 
Filbert (Corylus avellana). 
Common juniper {Juniper us communis). 

PERENNIAL HERBACEOUB PLANTS 

Alpine poppy {Papaver alpinum). 
Yellow pansy {Viola lulea). 
Alpine flax {Linum alpinum). 
Alpine clover {Trijolium alpinum). 

Sainfoin; Holly clover {Onobrychis saliva). (Now known as 0. vicicefolia). 
Creeping avens {Geum reptans). 
Laserwort {Laserpitium gallicum). 
Pyrenean valerian {Valeriana pyrenaica) . 
Alpine plantain (Plantago alpina). 

Feather-grass {Stipa calamagrostis) . {L. is antedated by stipa, which is now very gen- 
erally recognized.) 
Perennial oats {Avena sempervirens) . 
Common false-oat {Arrhenatherum avenaceum). 
Sheep's fescue (Feluca ovina). 
"Fenasse brun" (probably a species of heather). 



PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 



409 



APPENDIX D 

STATISTICS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS OVER FIVE 
THOUSAND ACRES IN AREA 

The following is a summary of State and communal forests over 5,000 acres in extent. 
It has been arranged by departments and shows for each forest the arrondissement, 
the area in acres, chief species, treatment, and the rotation. 



Department 



Ain 

L'Aisne. 



L'Aisne 

L'Aisne 

L'Aisne 

L'Allier 

Basses-Alpes . 



Hautes-Alpes 

Hautes-Alpes 

Hautes-AIpes.. . , 

Alpes-Maritirnes. 

L'Ardeche 

Ardennes 



Ardennes. 
Ardennes. 
L'Ariege. . 
L'Ari^ge.. 
L'Ariege. . 



L' AriSge . 

L'Aube.. 
L'Aube.. 



L'Aude 

L'Aveyron. 



A rrondissement 



None 

Soissons. 



Laon 

Laon 

Vervins 

MontluQon. . . . 
Barcelonnette. 

Brian^on 

Embrun 

Embrun 



None 

Privas.. . 
Mezieres. 



Rocroi 

Sedan 

Foix 

Foix 

Saint-Girons. 

Saint-Girons. 



Bar-sur-Aube. 
Bar-sur-Seine. 



None 

Espalion. 



Name of forest 



Retz 

St.-Gobain-Coucy . 

Coucy-Basse 

St. Michel 

Trougais 

Meolans, Revel . . . 

Nevache 

Ceillac 

Guillestre 



Bourg-Saint-Andeol 
Signy-l'Abbaye 



Revin. 
Sedan. 



I'Ancien Consulat 

de Foix 
Hares 



Seix. 



d'Ustou. 



Clairvairx. 
Rumilly.. 



d'Aubrac. 



Area 

(acres) 



31,128 
10,376 
.5,323 
7,569 
25,785 
8,481 

6,.580 
5,723 
6,.521 



4,972 
7,860 

8,463 

10,497 

7,631 

7,173 

5,7.33 

6,563 

10,502 
5,656 



5,859 



Chief species ' 



Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, Scotch pine, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Fir, spruce, larch, 

Scotch pine, cembric 

pine 
Larch, Scotch pine, 

mountain pine 
Larch, Scotch pine, 

mountain pine 
Larch, Scotch pine, 

mountain pine 

Sessile oak, holm oak 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, birch, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Beech, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Beech, fir, mountain 

pine 
Beech 



Beech, fir 



Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, hornbeam, mis, 

bd. Ivs. 



Beech, mis. bd. Ivs. 



Treat- 
ment t 



C. 

Conv. 
H.F. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 



H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 



Rotation 



150 
Unknown 
160 
35 
35 

30-33 

180 

Unknown 



180-200 

180 

180 

180 
180 

20-25 
30-32-36 



25-30 

Unknown 
30 
30 

120-144 
40 
140 
Unknown 

20 
Unknown 
144 
36 
Unknown 
30 
175 

162 
30 
15-18 



* Mis. bd. Ivs. 
t C. = coppice 



= Miscellaneous broadieaves. 
; Conv. = conversion; H.F. = high forest; C.U.S. = coppice-understandarda. 



410 



APPENDIX 



Department 



Belfort 

BoiK'hes-du- 
Rhone 

Calvados 

Cantal 

Charente 



Charente- 

Inferieure 
Cher 



Cher.... 
Corrfize. 
Corse 



Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 
Corse. 

Corse. 



Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse . 
Corse . 
Corse . 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse . 



Corse 

Corse 

Cote-d'Or. 
Cote-d'Or. 
Cote-d'Or. 



Arrondissement 



None. 
None. 



None 

None 

Angoulfime. 

Marennes. .. 



Bourges. 



Bourgcs. 

None 

Ajaccio. . 



.\jaccio. 
Ajaccio. 
Ajaccio . 
Corte... 



Corte. 
Calvi. 



Calvi. 



Calvi. 

Calvi. 

Calvi. 
Corte. 
Corte. 

Corte. 

Corte. 

Corte. 

Corte. 



Sartene. 
Sartene. 
Beaune. 



Ch&tillon-sur- 

Seine 
Ch&tillon-sur- 

Seine 



Name of forest 



Bragonne. 



Coubre. 



Vierzon . 



d'AIlogny. 



Bastelica. 



Bocognano. 
d'fivisa. . . . 



Zicavo . 
Corte. .. 



Marmano.. 
Calenzana. 



d'AIbertacce, Cala- 
cuccia, Casamac- 
cioli, Corsica, 

Lozzi (dite du 
Fango) 

Fango 



Tartagine-Melaja . 



Valdoniello 

d'AIbertacce 

soumise d'Asco. 



Ghisoni. 



Tova. 



Vivario. 



Carbini, Figari, Le- 
vie (massif de 
Cagna) 

Zonza 



Barocaggio- 

Marghese 

Citeaux. . . . 



Chatillon. 



Chaume. 



Area 

(acres) 



9,803 
9,808 
13,099 

5,459 

8„555 

5,743 

5,424 

9,780 

11,048 

5,439 
7,445 

15,839 



9,862 

6,877 

10,954 
5,555 
6,299 

10,052 

6,808 

6,012 

5,221 

10,129 
6,768 
8,626 

21, .550 
6,368 



Chief species * 



Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Maritime pine 

Oak, beech, hornbeam, 
birch, Scotch pine 

Oak, beech, hornbeam 

Holm oak, mis. conif. 

and bd. Ivs. 
Mis. beech 

Corsican pine, maritime 

pine, holm oak 
Beech, corsican pine 

Beech, Corsican pine. 

Maritime pine 
Beech, Corsican pine 
Maritime pine, Corsican 

pine, holm oak 
Holm oak, maritime 

pine, Corsican pine 



Holm oak, maritime 

pine, Corsican pine 
Holm oak, maritime 

pine, Corsican pine 
Corsican pine, fir, beech 
Corsican pine 
Corsican pine, maritime 

pine 
Holm oak, Corsican 

pine, maritime pine 
Maritime pine, Corsican 

pine, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Beech, Corsican pine, 

maritime pine 
Holm oak, maritime 

pine, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Maritime pine, Corsican 

pine 
Maritime pine, Corsican 

pine 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. conif. and bd.lvs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 



Treat- 
ment t 



H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 



H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 



Rotation 



120 
25-30 
Unknown 



160 
35 

12 

180 



30 
Unknown 
Unknown 
Unknown 
Unknown 
Unknown 
Unknown 
Unknown 
70 

280 

360 

120-360 

Unknown 



C.U.S. 


46 


H.F. 


120-360 


H.F. 


360 


H.F. 


Unknown 


H.F. 


Unknown 


H.F. 


160 


H.F. 


Unknown 


H.F. 


100, 140 




300 


H.F. 


120-300 


H.F. 


Unknown 


C.U.S. 





80, 150 

125 

90 
Unknown 

36 
140 

30,35 

32 



PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 



411 



Department 



Cote-d'Or. 
Cote-d'Or. 



C6tes-du-Nord . 

Creuse 

Dordogne 

Doubs 

Doubs 

Drome 



Drome. 
Dr6me . 



L'Eure. 
L'Eure. 



D'Eure-et-Loir. 



Finist^re 

Gard 

Haute-Garonne 

Gers 

Gironde 

Gironde 

Gironde 

Gironde 

Gironde 

L'Herault 

D'lUe-et-Vilaine 

L'Indre 

L'Indre 

D ' I ndre-et-Loire 



D ' I ndre-et-Loire 

L'lsSre 

L'IsSre 

L'IsSre 

Jura 

Jura 

Jura 

Jura 

Landes 

Landes 

Landes 

Landes 

Landes 



Arrondissement 



Dijon. 
Dijon. 



None 

None 

None 

BesanQon . . 
Pontarlier . 
Die 



Die. 
Die. 



Les Andelys. 
Louviers .... 



Dreux. 



None 

None 

None 

None 

Bordeaux. 
Bordeaux. 
Bordeaux. 
Lesparre.. 



Lesparre 

Montpellier. 
Rennes 



Chateauroux . 
Issoudun 



Chinon. 



Loches . . . 

Grenoble. 

Grenoble. 

Grenoble. 
Dole 



Poligny. 

Poligny. 
Poligny . 



Name of foiest 



Val-Suzon . . . . 
d'Is-sur-Tille. 



Dax 

Dax 

Mont-de-Marsan 
Mont-de-Marsan 
Mont-de-Marsan 



Besancon. 

Levier 

Vercors . . . 



Lus-la-Crox- Haute. 
Lente 



Lyons. 
Bord. . 



Senonches. 



Teste 

Lege, Garonne. . . 

Lacanau 

Soulac-Flamand- 
Hourtin 

Carcans 

Puechabon 

Rennes 



Chiteauroux . 
Bommiers . . . . 



Chinon . 



Loches 

Grande-Chartreuse 
Gresse 



Area 

(acres) 



5,199 
7,527 



d'Autrans. 
Chaux 



Moidons. 



Joux 

Poligny. 



Lit-et-Mixe 

Vielle- Saint-Giro ns 

Mimizan 

Sainte-Eulalie 

Biscarrosse 



5,078 
6,714 
8,691 

6,576 

8,135 

14,920 
8,649 

10,554 



5,817 
10,2.30 
12,353 
12,835 

7,537 
5,010 
7,360 

12,704 
11,021 

12,936 



16,306 

5,550 

5,550 
31,998 

7,705 

6,534 
7,.344 

8,058 
6,395 
8,175 
18,123 
16,131 



Chief species * 



Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mi.s. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beecli, hornbeam 

mis. bd. ivs. 



Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs 

Fir, spruce 

Beech, fir, spruce, mis, 

bd. Ivs. 
Beech, fir, Scotch pine 

Beech, fir 

Oak, beech, hornbeam 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

Scotch pine, mis. bd 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. conif . and bd. Ivs 



Treat- 
ment t 



Maritime pine 

Maritime pine 
Maritime pine 
Maritime pine 

Maritime pine 

Holm oak 

Oak, beech, hornbeam 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, mis 
bd. Ivs. 

Oak, Scotch pine, mari- 
time pine, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Beech, fir, spruce, mis. 
bd. Ivs. 

Beech, fir, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Beech, fir, spruce 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Fir, spruce 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Maritime pine 
Maritime pine 
Maritime pine 
Maritime pine 
Maritime pine 



C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F 

C. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 



H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 

H.F. 
C. 

Conv. 

Conv. 
C.U.S. 
Conv. 
H.F. 



H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 
C.U.S. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 



Rotation 



28,30 

32 

30 



30 
160 
180 

36 
180 
160 
160 
150, 180 

90, 150 
Unknown 

180 
150 

25 



60 
60 
70 
66, 67 

60 
20 
120 

180 
25-30 
Unknown 
Unknown 



150, 180 
1.50-180 

162 

30 
117 

30 
Unknown 

30-33 

Unknown 
30 

Unknown 

75 
Unknown 

70,75 

60 



412 



APPENDIX 



Department 



Arrondissement 



Name of forest 



Area 

(acres) 



Chief species 



Treat 

ment t 



Rotation 



Loir-et-Cher, 



Loir-et-Cher . 
Loir-et-Cher. 



Loire 

Haute-Loire 

Loire-Inferieure 



Loiret . 
Loiret . 



Lot 

Lot-et-Garonne. 

Loz^re 

Maine-et-Loire . 

La Manche 

Marne 



Marne 

Haute-Marne. 
Haute-Marne . 
Haute-Marne. 



Mayenne . . . . 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meuse 



Meuse 

Morbihan. 
Nievre . . . . 



Nievre . 
Nord . . . 



Nord. 
Nord. 



L'Oise. 
L'Oise. 
L'Oise. 



Blois. 



Russy. 



Blois. 
Blois. 



Blois 

Boulogne. 



7,855 



6,798 
9,884 



None 

None 

Paimbceuf . 



Orleans 

Montargis. 



Gavre 

d'Orleans. 
Montargis. 



11,033 
84,618 
10,262 



None 

None 

None. . . . 
None 

None 

Epernay. 



^'i t re-le-Frangois 

Langres 

Wassy 

Wassy 



Tragonne 

Trois-Fontaines . 
Auberive 



Roches and Bet 

taincourt 
Doulaincourt 



6,051 
12,384 
13,386 
5,577 
5,352 



None. 
Briey . 



Luneville. . . 
Luneville. . . 

Nancy 

Bar-le-Duc. 

Bar-le-Duc. 

None 

Cosne 



Moyeuvre. 

£;iieux 

Parroy .... 
de Haye... 
Beaulieu. . 
Lisle 



5,216 
5,145 
6,435 
15,913 
6,467 
6,674 



Nevers . . 
Avesnes . 



Bertranges . . . 

de Guerigny. 
Mormal 



Hazebrouck . . 
Valenciennes . 



Compi^gne. 
Compiegne . 

Senlis 



Nieppe 

St. Amand. 



Laigue 

Compiegne. 
Chantilly. . 



9,795 

5,644 

22,650 

6,215 
8,192 

9,439 

35,650 

13,299 



Oak, beech, hornbeam 

Scotch pine, mis. bd 

Ivs. 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

Scotch pine, mis. bd 

Ivs. 



H.F. 



H.F. 
H.F. 



Oak, beech, birch, mari- 
time pine 

Oak, hornbeam, birch 
Scotch pine 

Oak, beech, hornbeam 
Scotch pine 



H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

Conv. 



Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, fir, Scotch 

pine, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. bd 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. bd 

Ivs. and conifers 
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs 
Oak, beech, Scotch pine 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs 

and conifers 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. conifers and bd, 



C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
Conv. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 



150-180 
150 



180 

30 

80,90 
120 



30 
36 
150 
25 
30 

160 

144 

40 

120, 144 

150 

140 

40 

35 
180 

30 
Unknown 
150 

30 

30 

25 

144 

150 
35 
30 
Unknown 
72 



PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 



413 



Department 



Arrondisseinent 



Name of forest 



Area 
(acres) 



Chief species " 



Treat- 
ment t 



Rotation 



L'Oise. 



L'Oise. 



L'Orne. 



L'Orne 



L'Orne. 



L'Orne. 



Pas-de-Calais 

Puy-de-D6me. . . 
Basses-Pyrenees . 

Basses-Pyrenees 
Basse.s-Pyrenees 
Basses-Pyre nees 
Basses-Pyrenees 
Basses-Pyrenees 



Hautes-Pyrenees 
Hautes-Pyrenees 

Haute.s-Pyrenees 

Pyrenees-Orien- 
tales 

Du Rhone 

Haute-Saone . . . 

Saone-et-Loire . . 

Sarthe 

Sarthe 

Savoie 

Haute- Sa voie . . 

Seine 

Seine-et-Marne . 

Seine-et-Marne . 
Seine-et-Oise . . . 
Seine-et-Oise. . . 

Seine-et-Oise. . . 

Seine-et-Oise ... 

Seine-Inf erieure . 



Senlis 

Senlis 

Alencon.. . 

Dom front . 

Mortagne . . 

Mortagne . . 

Boulogne . . 

None 

Bayonne. . 



Mauleon. 
Maul eon. 
Oloron. . . 
Oloron. . , 
Oloron. . , 



Argeles-Gazost . 
Argeles-Gazost . 

Bagneres-de- 

Bigorre 
Prades 



None. 
Lure. 



Autun 

Saint Calais. 

Mamers 

Albertville. . 



None 

None 

Fontainebleau. 



Melun 

Corbeil 

Rambouillet. 



Versailles. 



Versailles . 



d'Ermenonville . 

d'Halatte 

Ecouves 

Andaines 

Belleme 

Perche 

Boulogne 



7,337 



10,605 



13,460 



6,000 



5,258 



5,019 



Saint-Pee-sur- 
Nivelle 

Cize 

Soule 

Arette 

Laruns 

Sainte-Marie.. 



5,834 



Oak, hornbeam, Scotch 

pine, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. 

and conifers 
Oak, beech, birch, 

Scotch pine 
Oak, beech, Scotch pine, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, birch 

Scotch pine 
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Ped. oak, pyr. oak 



7,794 Beech 

19,091 Beech, fir 

5,609 Beech, fir, mis. bd. Ivs 

14,621 I Beech, fir 

5,612 Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs 



Saint-Savin. 
Saint- Pie . . . . 



Vallee de Barousse 
Casteil 



9,133 
G,407 



5,123 



5,683 



St. Antoine. 

Planoise 

Berce 

Persidgne 

Beaufort . . . . 



6,630 
6,356 

13,403 
12,513 
5,172 



Fontainebleau . 

Villefermoy. . . 

Senart 

Rambouillet . . . 



41,6.59 

5,506 

6,177 

32,316 



Marley. 



Saint-Germain . 



Dieppe . 



d'Eawv 



5,C 



16,455 



Beech, fir 

Beech, fir, mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, fir 

Fir, mountain pine, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Beech, fir, spruce, mis 

bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, Scotch pine, 

maritime pine 
Oak, beech, Scotch pine, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Fir, spruce 



H.F. 

C.V.F. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

P. 

C. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Un- 
known 



80 

30 

125, 130 

20-30 
180 
30 
Unknown 
200 

150 

30 

15 

18 

132-144 
135 
153 
144 
120 
120 
Unknown 



20 
Unknown 
Unknown 

Unknown 



H.F 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 



128 

128 
144-150 

40 
216, 150, 

60 
180 

162-180 
201 



Oak, beech, hornbeam, 
birch, Scotch pine 

Oak, hornbeam, n 

bd. Ivs. 
Oak, birch, Scotch pine, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

Scotch pine, mis. bd 

Ivs. 
Oak, hornbeam, chest 

nut, mis. conifers and 

bd. Ivs. 
<3ak, hornbeam, Scotch 

pine, Austrian pine 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Beech, mis. bd. Ivs. 



H.F. 
H.F. 
C.V.F. 
C.V.F. 

C.V.F. 

C. 
H.F. 

H.F. 
C.V.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
C.V.F. 
H.F. 



Unknown 
56 
30 
32 

30 

30 
90 

150 
25 

120 

LTnknown 
30 
150 



414 



APPENDIX 



Department 



Arrondissement 



Name of forest 



Area 
(acres) 



Chief species ' 



Treat- 
ment t 



Rotation 



Seine-Inferieure 
Seine-Inferieure 



Seine-Inferieure 
Seine-Inferieure 
Seine-Inferieure 
Deux-Sevres 

Somme 

Tarn 

Tarn 

Tarn-et-Garonne 

Var 

Var 

Var 

Var 

Vaucluae 

Vaucluse 

Vendee 

Vendee 

Vienne 

Haute-Vienne 
Vosges 

Vosges 

Vosges 

Vosges 

Vosges 

Vosges 

Vosges 

Vosges 

Yonne 



Neufciiatel . 
Rouen 



Lyons .... 
Roumare. 



Rouen. 



Londe. 



Rouen. 



Couronne. 



Yvetot. 



Niort . 



Trait-Saint-Wan- 
drille 



Chize . 



Abbeville. 



Crecy. 



Castres . 
Gaillac. 



None 

Brignoles 

Draguignan. 

Draguignan . 



Saint- Amans-Soult 
Gre.signe 



11,293 
10,025 



5,318 



8,011 



16,697 



11,406 



10,406 



5,258 
8,053 



Rians . . . 
Bagnols . 



I'Esterel. 



Toulon 

Avignon 

Carpentras . 



Pierrefeu . 
Luberon . . 
Bedoin. . . 



Fontenay-le- 

Comte 
Sables-d'Olonne 

Poitiers 



Vouvant 

Barre-de-Monts . 
Mouliere 



5,943 
6,630 

14,226 

6,968 
7,967 
15,568 

5,721 
6,395 
8,320 



None.. 
Epinal . 



Epinal 

Mirecourt . 



d'Epinal 

Ramber-villers . 

Martinvelle. . . . 



Remiremont. 
Remiremont. 



Saint-Die. 
Saint-Die. 
Saint-Die. 



Bussange. 



Gerardmer .... 
Bois-Sauvages. 
vSenones 



5,602 

13,679 

13,064 

7,101 
6,874 

11,809 
5,310 
10,332 



Beech, oak, hornbeam 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

Scotch pine, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs., Scotch 

pine 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

Scotch pine, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

Scotch pine, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

Scotch pine, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech 
Oak, hornbeam, mis. 

bd. Ivs. 

White oak, holm oak 
Cork oak, maritime 

pine 
Holm oak, cork oak, 

aIci)po pine, maritime 

pine 
Cork oak, maritime 

pine 
Holm oak, aleppo pine 

White oak, beech, 
mountain pine 

Oak, chestnut, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Maritime pine, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

maritime pine, mis. 

bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, fir, spruce, 

Scotch pine 
Oak, beech, fir, Scotch 

pine 
Oak, beech, hornbeam, 

Scotch pine 
Oak, fir, spruce 
Oak, fir, spruce 

Oak, fir, spruce 

Oak, fir 

Fir, mis. bd. Ivs. 



H.F. 
C.V.F. 
C. Conv. 
H.F. 
H.F. 



H.F. 
C. Conv. 



C.V.F. 



C.V.F. 
H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 



C. 
H.F. 



H.F. 



H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv. 



H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 



180 
30 

150 
75 

120 



90 
150 



150-90 



30 

120 

30 
Unknown 
30 
150-156 



20 
Unknown 



Unknown 



Unknown 

25-30 
Unknown 

25-30 
Unknown 
Unknown 

25-30 
144 
Unknown 

180 



144 
30 
144 
144 
160 

150 

138 
Unknown 

150 

150 

150 
Unknown 



None. 



IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 



415 



IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 

As of 1912 (statistique des Forets de France) the important private forests of France 
(over 5,000 acres or 2,024 hectares in area) are Hsted below, with statistical data for each 
unit: 



Department 



Arrondiasement 



Name of forest 



Area 

(acres) 



Chief species " 



Treat- 
ment t 



Rotation 



L'Ain. 
Aisne. , 
Aillier. 
Aillier. 



Basses-Alpes 

Hautes-Alpes .... 
Alpes-Maritimes . 



Ardeche . . 
Ardennes. 
Ardennes. 



Ardennes . 



L'AriSge . 



L'Aube. 



L'Aube. 
L'Aube. 



L'Aube. 



Bourge.. 
Vervins . 
Gannat. 
Moulins. 



None . . 
None. . 
Grasse . 



Largentiere . 

Mezieres 

Sedan 



Vouzi^rs . 



Foix. 



Bar-sur-Aube. 



Bar-sur-Aube 
and Troyes 

Bar-sur-Aube 
and Troyes 



Troyes . 



L'Aude 

L'Aveyron 

Belfort 

Bouches-du-Rhone 

Bouches-du-Rhone 



Bouches-du-Rhone 
Bouches-du-Rhone 



None. 
None. 
None. 
Aix 



Aix. 



Aix. 
Aix. 



Couvandieres, Prince, 

Genou, Priay 
Nouvion 



Montpensier, Charmeil 

Vendat 
Chapeau, Leyde 



Particuliere. 



Lagorce (ou bois 

d'Ajude) 
Mazarin, d'Eneile. 

Sauton, etc 



Boux, Bas, Bourgogne 

Chesne, Voncq. 
Montsegur 



d' Hugemenil , Soulaines, 
Chantecoq, Fulvy 
Ferrieres, Pute-Bete 
Bouron, Arret, Rothi 
ere, Beaulieu 

Grand-Orient, Larivour 

Rumilly, Aumont, Cha- 
ouTce, Praslin, Cu.s- 
sangy, Perchois, Cha- 
moin 

d'Othe 



7,883 
9,234 
6,311 
5,585 

6,919 

5,251 
7,030 
5,169 

17,223 
5,879 
6,049 

13,191 
13,640 

24,214 



Vitrolles 

Sainte-Victoire. 



I'Estaque. . 
Saint- Paul . 



6,116 

24,587 



8,154 
5,498 



Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, mis. 
bd. Ivs. 

Beech, oak, spruce 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 



Holm oak, aleppo 
pine, maritime 
pine 

Sessile oak, hobn 
oak 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. CO 
nifera and bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Beech, fir, n 
bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 



Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam 
mis. bd. Ivs. 



Oak, hornbeam 
Scotch pine, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 



Aleppo pine, holm 

oak 
Sessile oak, holm 

oak, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Aleppo pine 
Sessile oak, holm 

oak 



C. 

CU.S. 

cu.s. 
cu.s. 
cu.s. 



H.F. 
C 

C. 

cu.s. 

C 

CU.S. 

H.F. 

C 

CU.S. 
CU.S. 
H.F. 
CU.S. 



cu.s. 
cu.s. 



H.F. 

cu.s. 



H.F. 
C 



H.F. 
C 



12-25 
30,35 



10-50 
18-20 

10-20 

25 

16, 17 

20-25 

Unknown 

20-30 

30 

70 

20-25 



20-25 
25 



50-60 
20-25 



50-60 
20 



50-6Q 
20 



• Mis. bd. Ivs. = Miscellaneous broadleaves. 

t C. = coppice; Conv. = conversion; H.F. = high forest; CU.S. 



= coppice-under-standards. 



410 



APPENDIX 



Depjirtinent 



Boiiches-du-Rh6ne 
Bouches-du- R h6ne 



Bouches-du- Rhone 
Bouches-d u- R ho i\e 



Calvados. 



Cantiil 

Charente 

Chareute-Iuferi- 

eure 
Cher 



Cher. 

Cher. 

Cher. 
Cher. 
Cher. 
Cher. 



Correze . 
Corse. . . 



C6te-d'0r. 



Coted'Or. 



Coted'Or. 



C6tes-du-Xord. 



C6tes-du-Nord. 



Creuse. . 
Dorgne . 



Dordogne . 

Dorgne. . . 
Dorgne. . . 



Doubs 



Arrondissement 



Marseille 

Aix and Mar- 
seille 

Aries 

Marseille 



Pont-rfiv^que. 



None 

Angoulome. 
Rochefort . . 



Bourges 

Saint-.\mand. 

Saint-Ainand. 

Saint-Amand. 
Saint-Amand. 

Sancerre 

Sancerre 



None . . . 
Sartene . 



Chfitillon-sur 
Seine 

Dijon 



Loudeac . 



Saint -Brieuc. 



None . . . . 
Bergerac . 



Bergerac. 

Bergerac . 
Sarlat.... 



None. 



Name of forest 



rfitoile.... 
Regagnas . 



Alpilles 

Roussargues. 



TouQues (ou de St. 
Gatien) 



Rochechourart . 
Benon 



Castelnau, Civray, etc. 

I'ficoron, Primelles, lai 
nerette.Thoux, Balay 
Effe, Chiite;iuneuf 

Parnay, Meillaut, Grail 
ly, Fleuret, Poiidy 
Chailloux, Contres 

d'Apremont, Boiicard. 
Les Boiu'anis 

d'Aubigny, Fouruay. . . 

d'lvoy-le-Prd 



Bouc^ird, Sens-Beaiijeju 
Villesenon 



Toga 

Rochefort, Thoureau. 



Marey, Cussey, Mau- 
champs, et Brun 

Lacour-d'Arcenay 



Loudeac . 



Lorge. 



Montclar. 



Lajudal . 



Barade. 



Area 

(acres) 



Chief species ' 



10,625 
S.525 



5.189 
22,832 



8,108 



7,413 
5,931 

6,178 

22,239 

17,792 

17,297 
8,402 
6,445 
5,881 

6.301 
6,425 

5,046 

9,390 

6,585 

6,425 

5,189 

5,436 

11,614 
7.660 



Aleppo pine 
Sessile oak, liolni 

oak, aleppo pine 
Holm oak 
Aleppo pine, holm 

oak 
Oak, beech, fir, 

mis. conifere 

and bd. Ivs. 



Oak, chestnut 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 

Oak, hornbeam 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbejim 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, mis. 
bd. Ivs. 

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. 



Holm oak, mari- 
time pine 

Oak. beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. co- 
nif. and bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, mis. 
conifers and bd. 
h-s. 

Oak, beech, mis. 
bd. Ivs., Scotch 
pine 

Oak, chestnut, 
maritime pine 

Oak, chestnut, 
maritime pine 

Oak, chestnut 

Oak, chestnut, 
maritime pine 



Treat- 
ment t 



Rotation 



H.F. 

H.F. 

C. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 



C. 
C. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

Unknown 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 
H.F. 



U.S. 
F. 
and 
U.S. 

F. 

U.S. 

U.S. 
F. 



50-60 
50-60 

IS 

IS 
50-60 

12-30 
Unknown 



15-20 

10 

20 
18-20 

20 

20 

20 

16-20 
15-20 
15-20 

Unknown 

20-25 
30 

24-25 
20-30 



15 
Unknowr 



IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 



417 



Department 



Dr6me. 

Drome. 

Drome. 

Drome. 

Dr6me. 

Drome. 
Drome. 

L'Eure. 

L'Eure. 

L'Eure. 

L'Eure. 

L'Eure. 

L'Eure. 



D'Eure-et-Loir. 



D'Eure-et-Loir. 



D'Eure-et-Loir 



Finist^re . 
Card 



Card. 



Haute-Garonne 

Du Gers 

Gironde 

L'HerauIt 

D'lUe-et-Vilaine. 



Arrondissement 



Die. 



Die. 



Valence . 



Montelimar. 



Valence . 
Valence . 

Bernay.. 

Itl\Teux.. 

fivreux.. 

Evreux. . 

l5\Teux.. 



Louvier.s . 



Nogent-le-Ro- 
trou 



Dreux. 



Dreux . 



None. 
Alais . 



Ntmes. 



None 

None 

None 

None 

Montfort . 



Name of forest 



Rochecourbe . 



Condamines. 



rfichara8.son, Larps, 
Goulets et I'AUier 

Raye 



Rocha.s, I'Ufernet. 



Grand.s.Rigauds, Mont 

pourchier 
Muzan 



Beaumont-le- Roger. 



Conches . 



Breteuil. 



d'fi^ 



d'lvry, Roseux. 



d'Acquigny, Mesnil- 
Jourdain, Canappe- 
ville, Feuguerolles 

Champrond 



Dreux 



Ferte-Vidame, Saucelle 



Mejannes. 
Lens 



Paimpont. 



Area 

(acres) 



6,079 



8,350 
6,835 

5,090 

5,078 
11,271 

5,782 



15,528 
7,883 
6,981 
7,932 
5,436 
8,031 
9,857 

6,351 
5,931 



16,593 



Chief species* 



Oak, beech 

Scotch pine, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, 

Scotch pine 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, fir, 
spruce, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech 

Scotch pine 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Ses.sile oak, holm 
oak, beech, mis 
bd. Ivs. 

Sessile oak, beech, 
mia. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, 
Scotch pine 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. coni 
fers and bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. coni- 
fers and bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. coni- 
fers and bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. coni- 
fers and bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. coni- 
fers and bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, Taeech, horn- 
beam, mis. coni- 
fers, bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Holm oak, sessile 

oak 
Holm oak 

Kermes-bear- 

ing oak, mis 

pine 



Oak, mis. conifers 
and bd. Ivs. 



Treat- 
ment t 



C. and 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. and 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 



C. 
H.F. 



C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 



C. and 
C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 
H.F. 



C. and 
C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 
H.F. 



Rotation 



5-40 

100-150 
10-20 
60 
60 

10-30 
80-120 

1.5-25 
60-80 

10-25 



10-25 



12-30 
60-80 



22-28 



18-28 



18-25 



15. 20-25 



1&-18 
Unknown 



1.^20 



20, 25-30 



15-30 



20-25 
16-20 



18 
Unknown 



418 



APPENDIX 



Department 


Arrondissement 


Name of forest 


Area 
(acres) 


Chief species * 


Treat 
mentt 


Rotation 






Chev-re (ou de la Vallee 


5,634 
7,250 


Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, chest- 
nut, mis. bd 
Ivs. 


C.U.S. 

C.u.s. 


18-20 


D'llIe-et-Vilaine. . . 




18 












Chateauroux.. . 
Chateauroux . . . 




9,390 
5,357 
10,327 

6,178 
10,013 

21,004 
14,826 


Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 

and conifers 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 
Fir, spruce, Scotch 

pine 
Oak, beech, chest- 
nut, mis. coni- 
fers and bd. Ivs 
Oak, beech, chest- 
nut, mis. bd 


C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

c.u.s. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 

Conv. 
H.F. 
C. 
C.U.S. 


20 




Gatines 


25 




d'Amboise 


25 






Chateau-la- Valliere 


Unknown 
18 


L'Isere 


Grenoble 

Saint-MarceUin. 

Saint-Marcellin 


60-150 






15-30 


L'Isere 


Chambarands . 


60-100 
60-100 
15 






15-25 








7,907 

11,275 

8,669 
5,140 

6,771 
5,931 
5,683 
11,120 

18,854 

5,436 
7,858 
5,683 


Oak, beech, chest- 
nut, mis. bd 
Ivs. 


c. 

c.u.s. 

C.U.S. 

c.u.s. 

H.F. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. and 
C.U.S. 
H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

c.u.s. 

C.U.S. 


12-18 








18-30 












Loir-et-Cher 


Blois 


Chambord . . . 


Oak, Scotch 

pine, mis. bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, mis. bd. 

Ivs., Scotch 

pine, maritime 

pine 
Oak, hornbeam, 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Beech, fir, Scotch 

pine 
Oak, beech, mis. 

bd. Ivs. 
Fir, Scotch pine 


20 


Loir-et-Cher 


Blois 




18-30 


Loir-et-Cher 


Romorantin 

Vendome 

Roanne 

Roanne 

Saint-fitienne . . 
None 


Bruadan 


130-140 
15-20 


Loir-et-Cher 

Loire 


Greteval (la Gaudi- 
uiere) 


15-25 

120 

60-120 


Loire 




15-25 


Loire 


Mont Pilat 


60-120 


Haute-Loire 






Loire-Inferieure. . . 


None . 








Loiret 


Orleans 


Folleville, Donjon, Qua- 
tre-Vents, Concyr, 
Maison-Fort, Bois- 
Gibault, Mezieres, 
Bois-le-Roi, Bouri, 
Villefallier, d'Aunay, 
Gachetieres, Cendray 
Fully, Francs-Bois 


Oak, Scotch pine, 
mis. conifers 
and bd. Ivs. 


9-18 


Lot 


50-60 


Lot-et-Garonne. . . . 


None 








Lozere 


None 








Marche 


Mortain 

Sainte-Mene- 

hould 
Sainte-Mene- 

hould 




Oak, beech, mis. 
bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam 

Oak, hornbeam, 
beech 


15 


Marne 


Belval 


20-25 


Marne 




25 









IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 



419 



Departiiieat 



Arrondissement 



Name of forest 



Area 

(acres) 



Chief species * 



menu ^'"^''°'' 



Marne. 



Haute-Marne., 

Haute-Marne. 
Haute-Marne. 

Haute-Marne. 
Haute-Marne. 

Haute-Marne. 
Mayenne 



Sainte-Mene- 

hould 
Chaumont . . . 



Chaumont . 
Chaumont . 

Wassy 



Wassy . 



Wassy . 



Laval . 



Mayenne. 



Mayenne. 



Mayenne 

Meurthe-et-Moselle 



Mayenne . . 
Luneville. 



Morbihan . 
Morbihan. 
Ni^vre. . . . 



Nidvre . 



NiSvre . 



Nifivre . 



LaGruerie. 



ficot, Champ-Briot, 

Grandes-Bois, Flo- 
rainville, Bosse, Jard 
Charmoy 

fitoile, Marchat, Relau- 
vaux, Bois Charrue 

d'Arc et de Chateauvil 
lian 



duVal. 



7,117 



8,436 
21,181 

8,550 



Cirey I'Aillemont, 
Bellevaume, Com- 
manderie, Grands- 
Ordons 

Der 



Charnie. 



Mayenne. 



Pail. 



12,101 



13,097 



9,316 



6,573 



Ploermel 

Pontivy 

Chateau-Chi- 
non 

Chateau-Chi- 
non 

Chateau-Chi- 
ne n 

Chateau -Chi 
non and Cla 
mecy 



Ban-Lemoine, Grand- 
Breheux, Vala, Alem 
combe, Herbaville, 
Charaille, Basse-Seie, 
Taurupt,Ton, Moyen- 
Sapinot, - Fontaine 
Voirhage, P6t-de-Vin 
Folie, Gagere, Trou 
Marmod, Grandes et 
Petites Moises, Grand 
Retour, Voincheres, 
Chatillon, Zoinique, 
Rupt-de-Laro, Petit et 
Grand Rougimont 
Martimont, Guindri 
mont 

Lanouee 

Quenecan 

Remaches Fromage, 
Breugnet, Sanclerges, 
Jacob et Pierre 

Vandenesse Deffend, 
Morillon 

Oursieres, Montsauche 
Gouloux, Beauvernois 

Montreuillon, Boule, 
Cuy , Baume, d'Oussy, 
Montraute 



11,589 



9,192 
6,178 
5,931 



6,425 



5,066 



11,144 



Oak, beech 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam mis. bd, 
Ivs. 

Beech, oak, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. Ivs 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. and conifers 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, chest- 
nut, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, chest- 
nut, mis. bd 
Ivs. and conifers 

Oak, beech, mis. 
bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, fir, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 



Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs 
Oak, beech, mis 
bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Beech 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd, 
Ivs. 



C.U.S. 



C.U.S. 
H.F. 



C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 



c. 
c. 
c. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 



c. 

C.U.S. 



25-30 
Unknown 



420 



APPENDIX 



Department 



Nievre . 
Nievre . 
Nidvre. 
Nievre . 
NiSvre . 

Nievre . 
Nievre . 

Nievre . 
Nievre. 

Nievre . 



Nievre. 



L'Orne. 
L'Orne. 



L'Orne. 



L'Orne. 



Puy-de-D6me. 
Puy-de-D6me. 



Arrondissement 



Pyrenees (Hautes-) 
Pyrenees (Hautes-) 

Saone-et-Loire 

Saone-et-Loire 

Sarthe 

Savoie 



Chateau - Chi- 

non and Cla 

mecy 
Chateau - Chi- 

non and Nev- 

ers 
Chateau - Chi- 

non and Nev 

ers 
Clamecy 



Name of forest 



Blin, Dame, Crots, 
Mouches, Vaux, 
Mouilles-Verrees 

Fours 



Area 

(acres) 



Clamecy . 



Nevers and 
Cosne 

Nevera and 
Cosne 

Nevers and 

Cosne 
Cosne 



Nevers. 



Nevers . 



AlenQon.. 
Argentan. 



Argentan and 
Mortagne 

Mortagne 



Riom . . 
Thiers. 



Bagneres-de- 

Bigorre 
Bagneres-de- 

Bigorre 
Chalon-sur- 

Saone 
Chalon-sur- 

Saone 
Mamers and 

Mans 
Chambery . . . 



Buremont, Maxilles . 



Bazoches, Graviers, Ra- 
pieres, Ferlees, Chev- 
riere 

Dames, Tremblee, 
Grand-Piece, Carre- 
des-Courgeonneries, 
Minerai, Pare 

Tronsay, Saint-Franchy 



Beaumont-la-Ferriere 

Reaux, Soueilles 

Tremone 
Vaux, Donne, Gros- 

Buissons, Coteauz 
Donzy, vallee de 

I'Epeau, Forts, Vaulu 

rins 
Perray, Chabet, Mussy, 

d'Ye, Loges-Fraillous, 

Cordes, Fonds, Nor- 

mand 
Nolay, Mauboux, Saint 

Benin Folies, Lichy 

Ballu, Goult, Montgom- 

meries 
Silh-en Gouffern 



Saint-Evroult . 



de Longny. 



Randan 

Bois Noirs (ou de Mon- 

toncel) 
Baronnies 



Noston 
Chagny, Lessart. 

Rombois 

Le Sille 



Montague d'Hauterens, 
Joigny 



5,100 
7,413 
3,212 
8,673 
3,707 

6,845 
3,195 

3,605 
6,548 

17,792 

8,649 

5,510 

8,248 

7,447 

5,622 

6,425 
6,771 

5,896 

6,410 

11,713 

8,649 

5,313 

6,672 



Chief species " 



Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam 
mis. bd. Ivs. 



Oak, beech, horn 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 

Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 



Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd 
Ivs. 

Oak, beech, Scotch 

pine 
Oak, beech, 

bd. Ivs. 

conifers 
Oak, beech 

Scotch 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. 

bd. Ivs. 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, fir, 

Scotch pine 
Oak, beech, fir 



Treat- 
ment t 



mis. 
and 



, fir, 
pine, 



Beech, fir 

Oak, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, hornbeam 

mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs, 

and conifers 
Oak, beech, mis, 

bd. Ivs. 



C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

c. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 

c. 
c. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

c. 



Rotation 



18-20 



20 

18-25 
18-20 

18 
20 22-15 

20-25 



15-20 
15-20 

8-12 
16-25 
55 
15-20 

15 and 20 
80-120 
Unknown 
10-40 
50-150 
10-40 
50-150 
16-22 

15-20 

16-18 

10-20 



IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS 



421 



Department 


Arrondissement 


Name of forest 


Area 

(acres) 


Chief species * 


Treat- 
ment t 


Rotation 


Seine-et-Marne — 


Coulommiers, 
Meaux, and 
Melun 


Grange, Lechelles Beau- 
rose, d'Attilly, d'Ar- 
mainvilliers, d'Her- 
mieres, Motte, Fau- 
vins, Crecy, Croissy, 
Guette 


28,417 


Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 


C.U.S. 


18-25 


Seine-et-Marne — 


Fontainebleau 


Commanderie, Bourron 


9,360 


Oak, Scotch pine, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 


c. 

C.U.S. 


15-20 


Seine-et-Marne — 


Fontainebleau 


Charme, Sucrement 


9,143 


Oak, Scotch pine. 


C.U.S. 


15-20 




and Melun 


Croix-Saint-Jerome, 
Fourche, Bois-Rond 




mis. bd. Ivs. 


H.F. 


20-40 


Seine-et-Marne 


Fontainebleau 
and Melun 


Valence, Saint-Martin, 
Fresnay, Graville, 
I'Argenterie, Garenne, 
Champigny 


11,367 


Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 


C.U.S. 


20-25 


Seine-et-Oise 


Corbeil 


Mont-Griffon, Grange, 
Camaldules, Pare, 
Gros-Bois, Notre- 
Dame, Pontillaut 


6,425 


Oak, hornbeam, 
mis. bd. Ivs. 


C.U.S. 


16-25 








5,436 


Oak, chestnut. 


C. 


12 










mis. bd. Ivs. 


C.U.S. 
H.F. 


15 

Unknown 




Dieppe and 
Neufchatel 


d'Eu 


22,711 


Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 


C.U.S. 
Conv. 


30 






120 










Ivs. 


H.F. 


120 


Var 


Brignoles Dra- 
guignan Tou- 


Nine private forests of 
little value 


Total- 
ing 


Cork oak, holm 
oak, sessile oak. 


C. 

C.U.S. 


15-20 




18 




lon 




499,151 


white oak 

(chene blanc), 
aleppo pine, 
maritime pine, 
chestnut 


H.F. 


40-60 








6,299 


Oak, beech, mis. 


C.U.S. 


20-25 






bonnais, Grand-Val- 




bd. Ivs. 










lee, d'Arnus 












Auxerre and 
Joigny 


Merry, Vaux, Bois-Bon- 
tin 


6,054 


Oak, beech, mis. 
bd. Ivs. 


C.U.S. 


17-25 








Avallon 


Souche-Noire, Vaux- 
lanes, Garenne, Fon- 


10,554 


Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 


C.U.S. 


20-25 










teaux, Poruches 




Ivs. 












6,919 
16,714 


Oak, mis. bd. Ivs. 
Oak, beech, mis. 


C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 


17 and 25 


L'Yonne 


Joigny 


d'Othe 


20-25 










bd. Ivs. 








Tonnerre 


Maulnes, Villon, Bour- 
ciere, Commissey 


9,266 


Oak, beech, horn- 
beam, mis. bd. 


C.U.S. 


20-25 














Ivs. 







422 APPENDIX 

APPENDIX E 
TYPICAL REFORESTATION AREAS IN THE MOUNTAINS 

Alps Region (Department of Haute-Savoie, Arc Superieur Forestation Area.) — The 
valley of tlu> Arc (which convspoiuls (o tlic ancient province of Mauricnnc) has a length 
of 79 miles from ihv (iirard Pass to tlu^ Royal Bridge. It divides into (wo parts: the High 
]\Iauri(>nn(> from th(> source of the Arc to St. Jean de Maurienn(>, and from tlie Lower 
Maurienne to tlu> St. .Ii>an at Isere. The average slope is 2.7 per cent . . . the 
higher part of the valley of (he Are extends to I\lodani> on the Italian frontier, from 
th(> summit of Oin, 11,52!) feet, to Thahon, 10,517 feet. . . . The Arc is fed by 
th(< waters of vast and numerous ghuu(U-s which occupy an area of more than 9,884 
acres. Important secondary valleys bring to it the waters of i)ther glacial groups. 
These arc, on the left, the valleys of Avarole and of Ribon, and, on the right, the 
valley of Doron de Termignon. 

Geological Conditions. — The high Maurienne is almost (>ntirely included in the 
Brian(.'onnais and Pr(>niont zt)nes. The axis of the zone of Brianvonnais is formed by 
carboniferous soil which extends from IModane to Saint-Michel. . . . The glacial 
il(>posits and drifts are of conunon occurrence on the slopes and lielp fetnl the torrents 
with material. 

Climate. — The climate of the Arc Valley is very much like that of (he Ilaute-Alpes. 
It is the continental climate rendered severe by the enclosure of the valleys and by the 
high altitudes. The rainfall, however, is less frequent and less abundant than in the 
rest of the department. . . . During the winter of 1903-1904 the average snow- 
fall recorded was from 'AA\ feet at St. Jc>an de Mavn-ienne, 2,195 feet altitude, to a maxi- 
nuun of 12.(i feet at St. .lean d'Arves, 4, 90S feet altitude. Tlie number of days of rain- 
fall and the amount of rainfall diminishes as you proceed from the Isrre toward Modane 
which has (]uite a ilry climate. This dry climate is due to the absence of mists and fogs. 
In tlie autunm fog rarely passes C^haniberg. Monniver, the intensity of (he light is 
more considerable in the Maiu'iennc than in the rest of Savoie. . . . 

Production. — Vineyards ex(end to an aKitude of about 3,2S() iee( in the western 
part of the region. . . . l''rom IModane to Belleval the dominant crop is almost 
exclusively rye. At Modane rye fields are found between 3,280 to 4,590 feet and at 
Bramnas they reach 4,920 to 5,250 feet. ... In the valley of the Averole certain 
fields extend up to 0,500 feet. . . . The high pasturage is grazed by sheep. 
The foresis under State con(r()l in the llaulc-Maurienne have an area of 27,230 acres. 
The larch, the cembric i)ine, and the spruce occupy the best soils, the mountain {)ine 
and Scotch pine being found on the gypsums and the hot slopes. 'I'lie (ir, the beech, 
and (he elm are in mix(ure wi(li the o(her species on the better soils. 

Administrative Situation, Area, Population. — The basin of ( he .Vrc Superieur 
inchules 20 communes of the District of St. Jean de Maurienne and a portion of the 
communes of Albiez-le-Jeune and Saint-Jean. The total area is 308,216 acres, some 
of the communes being the biggest in the department. The population includes 23,980 
inhabitants. 

State of Soil Erosion. — lii(t!(> or no grass, arid, steep slopes, l)iuMied by (lie sun, cut 
by ravines and torrents — such is the aspect of the llavi(e-I\lauriiMme entirely on the 
right side of the Arc. The erosion, once started in the mountains, increases from day 
to day and includes bordering surface soil in good comlition. This erosion is due 
to the nature of the grovmd, to the steepness of the slopes, anil (o (he small area of the 
forest cover (10 per cent of the basin area), to the excessive grazing and to too abundant 
irrigation. Because of this situation avalanches slide without hinderance and continue 



REFORESTATION AREAS 423 

to work deforestation, removing little villages, farms, herds, and too often menace 
life itself. In four winters avalanches have destroyed 700,000 board feet of timber, 
cut sixty-seven roads and trails of all kinds, destroyed fourteen houses, killed seventy 
sheep, and injured sixty-seven people, of whom eight died. Dangerous torrents, such 
as Envers, St. Martin, and St. Julien have eroded the mountains, covered the cultivated 
fields with debris and overturned houses. . . . The Arc Superieur area was estab- 
lished by the law of July 26, 1892, and includes 7,801 acres, of which 6,422 acres belong 
to the State. 

Work. — • The work of restoration is about finished in nine of the thirteen working 
groups. The torrent of Envers . . . rises in the mountains of Petie-Mont-Denis 
(10,269 feet). After leaving the schists of this higher basin it flows into a deep gorge 
hedged in by gypsum. The ravines have been corrected, embankments have stopped 
the avalanches from destroying the forestation, and drainage canals (by drying the 
soil) have l)een effective in holding the snow and assuring the stal)ility of the slopc^s. 
Ceml)ri(^ l)ine has been sown at an altitude of 6,560 to 8,200 feet and spruce, larch, 
and mountain pine planted between 5,900 to 7,200 feet. The torrent of Saint-Antoine, 
communes of Villarodin-Bourg(>t and Modane, flows from the little glacier of Belle- 
fenier (10,140 feet). Its upper basin is a vast funnel with very steep slopes formed of 
schists. . . . The torrent passes through a steep gorge of eroded gypsum and, cut 
by a bank of compact limestone, its floods are very dangerous. The correction has 
been effected by means of dams or drainage canals and avalanche walls. Moreover, 
at an altitude between 5,900 and 7,550 feet, cembric pine has been sown and there 
have been plantations of spruce, larch, and mountain pine. In the working group of 
Orelle and of Thyl, the Pousset runs through sand and carl)oniferous schist. The 
deforestation of its basin, the very steep slopes of its bed, the erosion and soaking of 
the soil, make its floods frequent and violent between an altitude of 4,920 and 7,870 
feet; here an area of 395 acres has been reforested with si)ruce, larch, and mountain 
pine. When the young forest is sufficiently develoi)ed the various branches of the 
torrent will be improved and it will be possible to gradually take up the other work of 
necessary correction. In the working groups of Beaume, Saint-Michel, Saint Martin la 
Porte, the Grollaz (see page 168) is bounded entirely l)y s(!hists and carboniferous sand. 
The correction work took place from 1880 to 1892 and from 1895 to 1905, and the foresta- 
tion has extended over most of the basin. A comjjlete stand of 124 acres of mountain 
pine, spruce, and larch has modified the aspect of the mountain. Lower down in the 
gorge, Scotch pine and alder are growing well. During the past few years the pine 
in favorable localities has grown more than 2.8 feet per year. The forest already 
established finishes the final working plan. The torrent of St. Martin in the com- 
mune of the same name runs from the little pass of Encombres. Two branches eroded 
in the gypsum have been corrected by means of dams and drainage canals. The left 
slope of the torrent (for the most part carboniferous in character) is an entire area of 
moving earth of about 3,700 acres. It is hoped to stop this important slide by drainage 
work which so far has given excellent results. Between 3,280 and 4,260 feet of altitude 
very complete forestation has been finished. The Scotch pine looks well l)ut the in- 
stability of the soil makes the results as yet uncertain. The material eroded l)y the 
torrent is sluiced to the river in a masonry canal. This important work has not as 
yet been finished and is not maintained by the Waters and Forests administration. 
The Rieu-Sec torrent, communes of St. Martin and St. Julien, flows from the rock of 
Beaume to the south extremity of the Encombres, through compact limestones and 
from the badly eroded black schists. The characteristic of this torrent is the very 
steep slopes of its basin. . . . The dams of enormous blocks of stone constructed 
from 1897 to 1900 constitute the absolute correction of the torrent and have suppressed 
the lava floods (of stone, mud, water, etc.), which might have formed in its basin. 



424 APPENDIX 

The forestation of the two slopes and part of the cone have very much improved matters, 
but, with such a topography, it is certain that it will always produce dangerous and 
sudden floods. The Daret, commune of St. Julien, flows from north to south to a point 
southwest of the Rieu-Sec. On the left it is joined by three ravines which originate 
in the Croix des Tetes. Its basin is formed by gypsums, limestone, and schists. As 
in the case of the Rieu-Sec, the dams have been constructed of blocks of stone each 
about 1 cubic yard in volume. Several drainage canals and forestation of spruce, larch, 
and mountain pine complete the control work started by the dams. The St. Julien 
torrent (seepage 156), communes of St. Julien and Mont Denis, is avast and complex 
torrent. Its basin comprises some 4,940 acres and is cut by ravines eroded in the schists, 
glacial muds, and marls. All this kind of soil is easily eroded. The floods and lava 
flows of St. Julien have been very numerous and have caused tremendous damage. The 
diversion canal, cut in the rock, has stopped a vast landslide which threatened the 
village of Mont Denis. Dams below and above the source of the damage have fixed 
the bed of the torrent and its waters are now conducted to the Arc by a drainage canal. 
Forestation of Scotch pine, oak, and ash has been completed in the slide area and plan- 
tations of poplar, willow, and alder have been made in the gorge. It appears that 
considerable damage has been reduced to the minimum. The torrent of Rieu-Bel, 
communes of Albiez-le-Jeune and Villergondran, rises in the commune of Albiez-le- 
Jeune at an altitude of 5,085 feet. It runs north for a length of more than 2 miles. 
Its circular upper basin is cut by little ravines which reunite in one big torrent below 
3,600 feet altitude. The soil comes from the disintegration of schists, usually saturated 
with water and shows a tendency to slide. By its floods and rockfall the torrent of 
Rieu-Bel menaces the village of Villergondran. Rough dams have been constructed 
to fix the bed of the torrent and drainage canals have been established with a view to 
draining the soil. Plantations of spruce and larch, not yet thrifty, completed the work, 
which, however, must be continued. 

The torrent of Roches Noires, communes of Villergondran and St. Jean de Maurienne, 
is cut in the black schists and in the glacial drifts. The steep slopes and the sterility 
of the soil have rendered the forestation difficult and uncertain. Everywhere the bed 
had to be fixed with wattle work but even then vegetation could not be introduced. 
Forestation is more important in this perimeter than in those which have already been 
described. The area forested includes some 1,599 acres. The corrective work, which 
remains to be finished as soon as possible, is limited to the construction of dams at the 
base, and the establishment of little accessory dams. 

Forestation Area of la Blanche. — The torrent of the Blanche is a tributary of the 
left branch of the Dm'ance which rises in the southeast of Seyne at the summit of Roche 
Close. It runs from the east to the west to the hamlet of Chardavox, when it turns to 
the northwest and follows into the Durance after a course of 19 mUes. From the 
hamlet of Vierard (commune of Saint-Martin-les-Seyne), or until it joins the Durance, 
this stream follows through narrow rocky gorges and is called the torrent of Rabious. 
Its drainage area belongs to the sub- Alpine region; it is bounded on the east by a very 
high chain of mountains, called la Blanche, whose altitude varies from 7,220 to 8,860 
feet. . . . Taking the basin as a whole, the Blanche has no important tributaries, 
but several of them, because of the tremendous slopes, are dangerous torrents. The 
greatest altitude is that of the Pic de la Blanche (9,075 feet) and the lowest is at the 
confluence with the Durance and Rabious (2,149 feet). 

Geological Conditions. — The bottom of the Blanche basin is occupied by glacial 
deposits from which emerge black marls. ... At the extreme southeast of the 
valley there is a great deal of limestone soil. . . . On account of the predominance 
of the glacial deposits under the black marls which form soil very susceptible to erosion, 
this basin is, on all sides, composed of deep ravines and sharp hills. . . . 



REFORESTATION AREAS 425 

Climate. — The climate is very cold in the upper valley and cold in the lower parts. 
On the summits the snow begins toward the end of October and persists until June. In 
the bottom of the valley it generally hes from December to April. Because of its ex- 
posure and its altitude the Blanche valley receives more rain than the south part of the 
department of Basses-Alpes. Long droughts are rare. Storms are frequent in summer 
on account of the nearness to the very high mountains. They have even the character 
of veritable waterspouts and are very disastrous to the crops which occupy the lower 
slopes and the bottoms of the valleys. 

Basins. — • The mountains are covered with grazing ground and in many localities are 
damaged on account of overgrazing. Every summer the ground is overstocked by 
sheep and the easily erodable soil is bared and forms deep ravines. Coniferous stands 
cover large areas and have a tendency to seed the neighboring bare ground. The 
Scotch pine forms pure stands on south exposures and is associated with fir and spruce 
on the moister slopes. On cold exposures these two species are frequently pure or in 
mixture with beech. The mountain pine is also found. Beginning with 3,280 feet 
altitude, there are stands of larch on the drier ground on north slopes. At very high 
altitudes the cembric pine appears. The forests which are not subject to Federal con- 
trol are exposed to destructive cutting and to intensive grazing, so that the soil becomes 
impoverished and the stands become more and more open. The lower slopes and the 
bottoms of the valleys are used for agriculture. Fruit trees are not over-abundant. 
The cultivated land yields cereals and potatoes; the natural prairies occupy large areas 
and produce a very valuable forage grass. 

Administrative Situation, Area, Population. — The Blanche basin extends over 
one commune (la Breole) in the district of Barcelonnette and five communes in the dis- 
trict of Digne. 

State of Soil Damage. — On all sides, but especially on south and west slopes, the 
Blanche basin is cut by ravines of a torrential character, all more or less dangerous. 
This damage has been caused by excessive grazing by cattle which has been too intensive 
on all the uncultivated land. On account of its geologic constitution, the sub-soil, 
formed either by black schists or by glacial deposits, is easily eroded after the cover 
has been removed by sheep grazing. Besides, because of the very long and steep slopes 
and on account of the abundance and frequence of snowfall and the rigor of the cHmate, 
it often happens in spring that in the higher areas avalanches contribute to the destruc- 
tion of the slopes. On certain areas the water filters into the soil and produces dangerous 
landslides. 

Composition and Area. — The Blanche forestation area includes five working 
groups according to the law of August 7, 1910. The total area amounts to 6,835 acres, 
of which 3,623 actually belong to the State. 

Work. — The Seyne working group is composed, for the most part, by the old Seyne 
area and some of the Colle, the reforestation of which aimed at preventing the recur- 
rence of floods (produced by the overflow of the Blanche river) and at the extinguish- 
ment of the torrents of Faut, Chateau, Allevar, Combanniere, and "Terre rouge." 
They extend over the west slopes of a high chain of mountains which separate the 
Blanche basin from that of Ubaye and are situated at altitudes varying from 4,590 to 
8,200 feet. The work of control and reforestation was begun in 1862 and is still in 
progress. At the beginning they proceeded simultaneously with sowing and planta- 
tions of conifers and broadleaf trees, but it was not long before they found out that the 
sowing generally gave poor results. . . . Accordingly plantations became the rule 
except in special cases. The species used for the most part were larch, spruce, cembric 
pine, mountain pine, Scotch pine, and Austrian pine. The larch was used in mixture 
with the cembric pine .in the highest zone, at an altitude between 6,560 and 8,200 feet, 
on very steep slopes, covered with snow for the greater part of the year, and often 



426 APPENDIX 

subject to slides; in the zone immediately below, between 5,580 and 6,500 feet, mountain 
pine, pure or in mixture with Scotch pine; below 5,580 feet, there were Scotch pine and 
Austrian pine, sometimes mixed with mountain pine. Spruce has been introduced on 
south slopes as an understory for the pine. The plans provide for little nurseries estab- 
lished all over the area in order to avoid the cost of transport. These plantations have 
produced quite variable results. The lower parts of the working group are generally 
covered with a good sapling or low pole-stand of larch and pine, but the higher areas, 
because of the rigor of the climate, the nature of the soil, and short growing seasons, 
have resulted in general failure. Willows, poplars, alders, etc., have been planted and 
layered at the bottoms and on the slopes of ravines in order to fix the soil and decrease 
the violence of the water wherever it has been possible. Beginning with the year 1862 
the sodding of the soil has also been started either by sowing the seed of "fenasse," 
"luzerne," or "sainfoin," indigenous to the locaHty, or by planting tufts of "fettique." 
Results have been very satisfactory. The corrective work undertaken simultaneously 
with the reforestation and sodding is very important. It consists in the construction of 
a large number of dams and of sills in dry stone in the bottoms of the ravines, in order 
to help maintain the mountain sides, in order to diminish the steepness of the valley 
bottom, and to decrease the speed of the running water. Between these dams fascines 
and wattle work barriers have been established. Since 1876, wherever possible, the 
ravines and the bottoms of the brooks have been thinned where the stands were too 
dense. This work, which aims at stopping the action of the water on the erodable soil, 
has given excellent results. The work as a whole has succeeded in almost entirely 
stopping the action of the torrents in eroding the Seyne working group, with the ex- 
ception of the torrents of Allevar, Chateau, and Faut, which rise in very steep ground 
and at high altitudes, and where the growth is very slow, and which do not seem sus- 
ceptible of correction for some time yet. The working group of Montclar is formed for 
the most part by the old area of Lachaux, the reforestation of which aimed at preserving 
the grazing plateau of Lachaux from the danger of floods and avalanches. It extends to 
the extreme north of the slope, where the Seyne working group is at an altitude which 
varies from 6,400 to 8,200 feet. The reforestation work, which began in 1864, has con- 
sisted in sowing and planting larch and cembric pine in the higher areas, and larch, 
mountain pine, Scotch and Austrian pine lower down. After sowing forage seed and 
planting willow (as nurse trees) the area has been completely restocked to conifers. 
Quite a number of sills of dry stone were established in the chief ravines at the same 
time the work of covering the slopes began. The restoration of this working group is 
just about completed. The total area reforested is approximately 3,539 acres. 

According to my original notes: "At Barcelonnette, there had been a veritable de- 
population on account of the damage from erosion. The work of forestation and 
erosion prevention was started shortly after 1862, and began in the so-called "terrenoir," 
where the damage was the worst. After six years of practice the local inspector re- 
ported that a large number of small dams were preferred to a few large expensive dams, 
as was formerly the practice. Below 5,900 feet of altitude white alder was generally 
preferred along stream beds and green alder at higher altitudes. In this region the 
annual rainfall is about 43 inches, but during July, August, and September there are 
very few storms. The torrents seem to have started on slopes 30 degrees or steeper. 
On slopes up to 20 degrees bad erosion rarely starts in. The main damage at Barcelon- 
nette seems to have been caused by grazing an average of 2.4 to 3 sheep per acre whereas 
the grazing ground would only support 0.8 to 1.6." 

Central Plateau Region (Puy-de-D6me Department, La Sioule Forestation Area). 
— La Sioule, which flows into the Allier, rises in the forests of Mont Dore at 
the Servieres Lake, which occupies an old crater, at an altitude of 3,937 feet. It flows 
with a rapid slope for 7^ miles through narrow and deep gorges with an average descent 
of 3.5 per cent. . . . The basin occupies a vast undulating plateau slightly inclined 



REFORESTATION AREAS 427 

toithe north and formed, for the most part, by gneiss and mica schists with granite on 
about half its drainage area. . . . The upper basin of la Sioule occupies about 
25 miles of circumference. . . . The highest altitudes are those of the Puy-de- 
Dome, 4,806 feet. The lowest altitude is where the Sioule leaves the department, 
1,037 feet. 

Climate. — The climate of the region is severe, despite the moderate altitude of the 
plateau, and is characterized by rapid changes in temperature. The spring rains are 
very abundant and result in sudden floods. During the summer violent storms are 
succeeded by prolonged droughts. The winter is long and vigorous and is marked by 
heavy falls of snow in the mountain forests. 

Basins. — The basin of the Sioule is divided into two regions (the grazing area ex- 
tends over about one-fourth of the total area). The natural mountain zone, which 
bounds the basin on the southeast and comprises all the volcanic soil from the Domes 
chain to Mont Dore. The agricultural area occupies the plains. It extends into the 
plateau region and produces fruit, rye, barley, grain, oats, and potatoes. A considerable 
proportion (about 20 per cent) of the uncultivated land belongs to the State and is 
covered by heather, which is open to sheep grazing. The forest occupies about 10 per 
cent of the area and comprises simple oak coppice and pole stands of conifers. 

Administrative Situation. — The part of the basin included in the department of 
the Puy-de-D6me extends over twenty-one communes of the Clairmont district and 
fifty-six communes of the Riom district. The area is about 339,769 acres and the popu- 
lation about 72,600. 

State of Soil Erosion. — The soil erosion as yet is not very important. Because of 
the soUd nature of the rock the surface water flows from the gentle slopes without cut- 
ting in. Once in the bottom of the thalweg, it ... is almost unerodable. The 
solidity of the rock facilitates the different correction work; forestation aims almost 
entirely at forming a cover. 

Composition and Area. — The Sioule area was laid out by Art. 16 of the law of 
April 4, 1882. It includes eight working groups, but a total of only 1,453 acres. 

Work. — The forestation undertaken under the law of July 18, 1860, had as its first 
objective the creation of important forests capable of retaining the soil on the slopes and 
of regularizing the general waterflow . . . the work has been both by means of 
sowing and of plantations. In the case of the Scotch pine the seed has been sown broad- 
cast on land covered with a short growth of heather (see page 133). The pedunculate 
oak has been sown in seed spots. The species used in plantations have been the fol- 
lowing: Scotch pine, spruce, pedunculate oak, beech, and birch. Usually the two 
methods of forestation — sowing and planting — have been employed together. The 
work has been finished for some time and the stands obtained are now making excellent 
growth. 

Cevennes Region (Lozere, Ardeche Departments Chassezac Forestation Area). 
— The Chassezac is much the most important tributary of the Ardeche. With a total 
length of about 47 miles it rises in the Lozere and extends to Alfigere, but it flows in to 
the Ardeche River at the Sampzon rock, not far from the confluence with the Beaume. 
It flows, to start with, in very narrow but extremely deep gorges, then in a valley of 
increasing width. It has a length of 27 miles in the Ardeche department with an average 
slope of 2 per cent, and an average width of 148 feet. Its flow per second in the lower 
parts of its course is 1.5 cubic yards at low water, 8 cubic yards under average condi- 
tions, and 2,500 cubic yards during floods. Bounded on the north by the Cevennes 
(which separates it from the Allier basin) and by Mt. Tanargue (which separates it 
from the upper Ardeche), this basin reaches at the hamlet of Bez an altitude of 4,072 
feet; in the State forest of Tanargue, 4,462 feet; and on the plateau of the Borne work- 
ing group (near Tanargue), 4,951 feet. 



428 APPENDIX 

Administrative Situation. — Entirely in the Largentiere district, it includes a 
total area of 100,633 acres with a population of 16,791 inhabitants scattered through 
twenty-eight communes. 

Destruction of the Soil. — The Chassezac was established by the law of July 18, 
1906. It includes 4,774 acres, of which, 1,315 actually belongs to the State. 

Work. — There is only one working group, that of Laubresse, exappropriated in 1886. 
Others are now being acquired. This working group, situated on the mica schists at 
an altitude varying from 3,280 to 4,167 feet, forms (on the Laubresse plateau) several 
isolated cantons covered with superb stands of pine from 18 to 20 years old. In the 
purchases in the working circles of Borned, Saint Laurent les Bains, Mont Selgues, 
there is also at the same altitude on the same plateau and on the same kind of ground 
a very complete thrifty stand of pine from 24 to 28 years old. The total area actually 
reforested is 1,594 acres. 

Pyrenees Region (Department of Haute-Pyrenees, Gave de Pau Forestation Areas). 
— The Gave de Pau is the most important water course in the Hautes-Pyrenees. 
When it flows into the Adour at Peyrehorade, after a length of 109 miles, its volume 
has increased fourfold. . . . The highest altitudes vary from 7,487 to 10,673 feet. 

Geologic Conditions. — The high Imsin of the Gave de Pau only includes stable 
ground, with the exception of the watershed of Gararie, formed of white limestone, 
and the Blanc and Gavieton, which are formed of gravel, marls, and limy marl. The 
granite occupies the higher basin of the Gave de Cauterets. . . . The glacial 
deposits and detritus are frequently mixed with the original soil on the slopes. 

Climate. — The climate of the valley of the Gave de Pau is similar to the general 
Pyrenees climate, that is to say it is temperate and humid. In the high areas there 
are considerable changes in temperature. The northwest winds, which always bring 
rain, give rise to erosion on the slopes. The aspect is without influence on the forma- 
tion of avalanches, since they are produced on both north and south slopes of the Cau- 
terets valley. Fogs and mists are frequent. The snow and the rain are very abundant, 
but the river is chiefly dangerous in spring when the winter snow is not yet melted, or 
sometimes in autumn after the first snowfall. Hail storms are quite frequent but their 
effect is very localized. 

Production. — The basin of the Gave de Pau was formerly more heavily forested 
than it is to-day. . . . The forests have been cut so as to give place to pasturage, 
which is often mediocre in character. Outside the forests and the grazing ground the 
cultivated fields are very limited and onl}^ occupy the bottom of the valleys and the 
foot of the slopes. They consist of meadows for fattening beef, or are in grain and po- 
tatoes used by the agricultural or pastoral population of the region. 

Administrative Situation. — The upper basin of the Gave de Pau is situated in the 
District of the Argeles. Its area is 244,633 acres and its population about 31,000. 

State of Soil Erosion. — • The causes of erosion are : The steepness of the slopes, the 
abundance of erodable deposits, the climate, and the occupation. Too often the forests 
are destroyed and the sod broken. Occasionally, in the more inaccessible areas, the 
forest cover has been perfectly maintained mid there are no avalanches. Overgrazing 
results in landslides or erosion. 

Composition and Area. — The area includes five working groups, comprising 2,832 
acres, of which 917 belong to the State. 

Work. — This area included the Peguere slide and the torrent of Lizey. The fixation 
of the Peguere shde is worth a special visit. The Lizey torrent, which used to be an 
apparently inoffensive brook, quickly changed its character in 1895. From the 22d 
to the 27th of April a flood cut the national highway for a distance of 1,970 feet and to 
an average depth of 5 feet. . . . The volume of the material deposited has been 
estimated at 40,000 cubic yards. All this debris came from slopes covered with glacial 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 429 

deposits. This danger has now been corrected. The State lands of the Peguere and 
Lizey are partly forested. The stands have been fully stocked and the openings filled 
in by means of local species, beech, pine, and fir, and to a lesser extent, the larch, spruce, 
birch, and alder. The total area forested amounts to 734 acres. 



APPENDIX F 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING MARITIME PINE AND FOR FIXING 
SHIFTING SAND DUNES 

The rules and specifications governing the tapping in (a) France, (b) British India, 
and (c) the United States are given in fidl. 

According to the conditions for sales for the extraction of resin (cahier des charges), 
approved May 17, 1912, by the Secretary of Agriculture, the work will be ordered as 
follows : 

Arts. 1-17 cover the method of sale, terms of payment, and various technical costs. 

Beginning with Part III, Exploitation, the instructions are: 

Art. 17. — The permit to cut will be delivered by the Waters and Forests agents, 
chief of service, on the presentation (a) of certificates showing that the contractor 
has furnished his sureties or his security and fulfilled payments called for by Art. 12 
of the current cahier des charges; (6) for State woods ... as provided by the 
law of July 18, 1907. The Waters and Forests agent will sign these papers. He will 
also deliver to the contractor if demanded: (o) A copy of the record of sale which will 
be certified to by the secretary at the place of sale; (6) a copy of the advertisement 
data with the articles, clauses, and conditions which concern it when this advertise- 
ment is a part of the record of sale. All these papers will be stamped. 

Art. 18. — The contractor will deliver the permit to the head ranger and inform 
him of the day when he expects to commence exploitation. In any case this cannot 
be before January 1 of the first year of the cutting period. 

Art. 19. — Unless otherwise indicated (see p. 190) or contrary to the special contract 
clauses, the extraction of resin must conform to the following provisions: 

(A) Tapping without Killing (Gemmage a vie). — The tapping will have either 
one or two faces, according to the directions of the Waters and Forests Service. Trees 
to be tapped with two faces are only those which have been so designated and indicated 
in the record of sale. The faces will be begun above the root collar, but will be raised 
vertically, follov/ing the grain of the wood. If the period of tapping is for 5 years the 
face may be raised 2.3.6 inches during the first year and 25.6 inches during the follow- 
ing years, in such a manner that the total height will not exceed 10.5 feet. If the tap- 
ping period is 4 years (now the current practice, but see p. 193 for latest sizes) the face 
may be raised 23.6 inches during the first year, 25.6 inches during the second year, 
33.5 inches during the third, and 39.4 inches during the fourth, so that the total height 
of the face shall not exceed 10.2 feet. In any case the width of the faces must not 
exceed 3.5 inches the first year, 3.1 inches the second, 2.7 inches the third, and 2.4 
inches beginning with the fourth. The decrease in width must take place gradually 
so that the width of the face at the end of a year will equal the width of the face (pre- 
scribed) for the beginning of the next year. Their depth must not exceed 0.4 inches 
measured with a string stretched from one side of the gash to the other, beginning 
at the red part of the bark. The tapping will take place in accordance with the direc- 
tions from the Waters and Forests Service; either on four faces (au quart), all faces 
being made as far as possible two by two on opposite diameters; or by three faces of 



430 APPENDIX 

three made by dividing the circumference of the tree into three practically equal parts, 
the second having been cut at the right of the first when facing it. Unless specially 
provided for in the sale contract, the tapping will be done on four faces. The former 
faces will be abandoned no matter what their height. The contractor may, on his 
demand, be authorized by the conservator to replace a 5-year tapping period by a 
4-year period, adopting for the faces the sizes prescribed for the 4-year period. This 
request may be made during the course of exploitation but must be before the face 
exceeds the dimensions prescribed for the year corresponding to the chosen period. 

(B) Tapping to Death (Gemmage a mort). — If the trees to be tapped to death 
form part of the sale or are marked for the contractors, the latter can work them as 
they think best. On the other hand, contractors cannot tap trees so as to diminish 
their value as sawlogs or firewood. The size of the faces should be such that their whole 
area never exceeds the limits of a regular face. 

Art. 20. — Any tree worked contrary to the principles described in the preceding 
article or the special clauses will be considered as having been mutilated, thus falhng 
under the penalty of Arts. 192 and 196 of the Forest Code. The contractor will be 
hable to the same penalties, if at any time, in order to lead the resin into the cup, he 
shall have made at the foot of the trees tapped alive circular incisions sufficiently deep 
to damage the wood. 

Art. 21. ^Tapping operations shall be limited to between March 1 and October 31 
of each year, but the contractor may commence to bark the pine to be tapped and to 
place the cutters after February 1. He may also collect the scrape up to December 1 
of each year of the tapping period, except that the last year (of the period) must be 
terminated by November 15. If, by any reason of local conditions, other periods must 
be adopted for the aforesaid collection, mention will be made of it in the special sales 
clauses. 

Art. 22. — The contractor may prune the trees to be tapped alive up to a height of 
13.1 feet. Unless stipulations have been made to the contrary, he may dispose of the 
products of this operation. 

Art. 23. — The felling of trees sold to be tapped to death cannot commence before 
July 1 of the year before the final year of the felling period. The contractors who 
wish to anticipate the felling of all or a part of these trees shall ask authorization for it 
from the Director-General of Waters and Forests, who will fix the new conditions of 
exploitation and, if there are any, for the payment of annuities. In any case this author- 
ization wiU not be necessary for trees unfit for tapping that measure less than 6 inches in 
diameter at breast height; the contractors will have the privilege of varying them at 
any time during the exploitation period on condition that they notify the local agent 
when they commence felling. Dead standing trees designated at the time of the mark- 
ing shall be felled either in the first month of the period of exploitation or within one 
month from the day of the auction, if this took place after the beginning of the exploita- 
tion period. 

Art. 2Jf. — Trees sold shall be cut with the axe or with the saw as near as possible 
to the stamp on the stump without injuring it. In no case and under no pretext may 
the imprint of the State marking hatchet be erased from trees tapped alive or, with 
equal force, those which are to be tapped to death; these marks must remain intact 
through the entire period of exploitation and to this end all necessary precautions shall 
be taken from the first cutting of the faces; it shall even be carefully seen to that these 
marks are not covered by the resin. Every tree on which the aforesaid marks shall 
have disappeared will be considered as not forming a part of the sale and will render 
the contractor liable to the application of Arts. 34 and 196 of the Forest Code. The 
method of marking will be indicated in the advertisement and in the sale record. 

Art. 25. — If, because of unforeseen circumstances, such as patrol paths, fire lines, 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 431 

working-plan improvements, work for the protection of the coast line, alienation, and 
resale, or for any other cause of this sort, trees tapped alive, felled, or diverted from 
felling an indemnity equal to the average new revenue produced by each tree alive shall 
be allowed to the contractor for each year remaining. When, under the same condi- 
tions, trees to be tapped to death should be felled or included in compartments out- 
side the felling area, a like indemnity shall be credited him for these trees if the priva- 
tion of tapping occurs before the third year of the exploitation period. Under such con- 
ditions the contractor shall be bound to exploit them and remove them within the period 
which shall be allotted; in default of which the owner of the forest may dispose of the 
trees as he likes. These indemnities shall be arranged between the head ranger and the 
contractor or his representative after a hearing and approval by the conservator. 

Art. 26. — When the plan of sale authorizes or requires felhng by extraction of 
stumps, the contractors shall fill up and level the holes made by the uprooted trees as 
the cutting proceeds. 

Art. 27. — The contractors shall only be required to brand and top trees (before 
felling) marked for exploitation which shall be so designated by the Waters and Forests 
Service; the number of such trees and how they are marked shall be indicated in the 
advertisements and sale data. The wood resulting from these operations as well as 
that from the removal of branches and tops (done at the contractor's option) shall be 
immediately removed, and especially before felUng, when they cover either young growth 
or seedlings. 

Art. 28. — Trees shall be cut in such a way as not to damage those reserved and felled 
so far as possible upon areas where there is no reproduction. 

Art. 29. — ■ The twigs and branches shall be removed and piled as the cutting proceeds 
so as not to hinder access to the felling areas. 

Art. 30. — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special clauses of sale, the felling of all 
wood shall be terminated by April 15 of the last year of the period, whether the wood 
has been tapped or not. 

Art. 31 . — Every contractor who cannot finish felling or cording according to the 
prescribed periods and requires an e.xtension of time shall be bound to make the demand 
of the conservator on "stamped" paper at least 20 days before the expiration of the 
cutting period. This request shall include information as to the amount of wood re- 
maining to be cut or the amount and quality of the wood remaining to be corded, the 
causes of the delay in felling, and the extension which it is necessary to grant. It will 
be judged on its merits by the conservator. The contractor, simply by making such a 
request for an extension of time for felling, obligates himself to pay the costs fixed by 
the administration. The extension runs from the day of the expiration of the periods 
fixed in the preceding article. When the contractors have not profited by the exten- 
sions which they have been granted, they cannot obtain any refund of the indemnity 
fixed except by a report of the Waters and Forests agent or head ranger, dated at the 
latest on the day of the expiration of the term of exploitation, and showing clearly they 
have profited by the benefits of the decision. This report is exempt from stamp and 
registry fees. (Law of May 15, 1818, Art. 30.) 

Art. 32. — The contractor is forbidden: (a) To pile or allow branches, chips, sawdust, 
bark, etc., to remain (on the ground) except on areas designated by the local Waters and 
Forests agent or his representative The contractor may be required to scatter these 
remnants if it is considered necessary; (6) to place or pile wood on young growth or 
against reserved trees ; (c) to place the material of exploitation outside the limits of the 
felhng except at depots specially designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or 
his representative. 

Art. 33. — As cutting proceeds the contractor must remove wood which falls in the 
paths separating the felling areas. 



432 APPENDIX 

Art. 34. — The roads must be continually kept free in the felling areas so that wagons 
can pass at any time. 

Art. 35. — The contractor must not injure any reserved trees, whatever their quality 
or number. Under no circumstances, except as specified in these rules, can the con- 
tractor have reserve trees marked, even when he finds the number of trees sold less than 
those recorded in the auction estimate sheet. This difference cannot give the contrac- 
tor any right to an indemnity. When, during the course of felling, the trees to be tapped 
alive or reserved trees are burned, die, are overturned or damaged by the wind or by 
any other cause over which the administration has no control, the contractor will notify 
the local Waters and Forests agent, so that reconnaissance of these trees can be made 
without delay. The contractor must, upon demand, fell such trees within 15 days, 
except those burned. He will have the right to receive the stocktaking sheet and esti- 
mate, which shall be drawn up by the local agent and which, signed by the contractor, 
and approved by the contractor, shall be executed without further formality under the 
conditions prescribed in Art. 59. The contractor shall be considered as having re- 
nounced his preemption right, if within 15 days of the time he was formally notified he 
has not returned this paper to the local agent showing his acceptance. Said notification 
shall be made in the discretion of this agent either by the intermediary of an employee 
or by registered letter but no indemnity, restitution, nor decrease in price shall be 
granted the contractor for any loss which he may occasion from trees destined to be 
tapped alive. 

Art. 36. — Trees to be tapped to death and sold, which die during the course of the 
felling period, must be immediately felled by the contractor and at the latest within 15 
days after notification of their death has been made by the local agent. If the trees 
tapped to death are not sold, the same procedure shall be followed during the course of 
the felling period as has already been described for the trees to be tapped alive and for 
the reserves. The contractor cannot claim any indemnity for loss of resin. 

Art. 37. — When any tree marked for felhng shall lodge on a reserve, the contractor 
cannot fell this reserved tree until after the local Waters and Forests agent or his repre- 
sentative acknowledge the necessity for the felling. 

Arts. 38-39. — When, despite the observations of the rules relative to the feUings, re- 
serves are knocked down or damaged by felling, or knocked down under the conditions 
described in the preceding article, the local Waters and Forests agent or his representa- 
tive shall proceed in company with the contractor for a reconnaissance of this wood, 
and, after an estimate of the damage caused, the contractor shall pay to the owner of 
the forest an indemnity equal to the total damage. When reserves are knocked over 
or felled the indemnity will not be less than the following minimum : 

Stumps less than 7 inches in diameter at — 

3.3 feet above the soil $0.03 per inch of diameter 

7 to 14 inches 0.06 per inch of diameter 

14 to 24 inches 0.08 per inch of diameter 

24 to 35 inches 0.10 per inch of diameter 

Over 35 inches 0.12 per inch of diameter 

This minimum will be equally applicable to reserves damaged, which the local agent 
believes cannot thrive or remain standing, and the contractor will be bound to fell these 
trees within 8 days after notification by the aforesaid agent. . . . Until the pay- 
ment of said indemnities the reserves overturned, damaged, or felled will continue to 
belong to the owner of the forest; but the contractor will have the right to acquire the 
trees overturned or felled according to the method and conditions indicated in Art. 36. 

Art. 40. — The Waters and Forests Service will have the right to sell, without wait- 
ing for the final inspection of the cutting area, the windfall, wind damaged, burned or 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 433 

dead trees, as well as reserves overturned, felled, or broken, which the contractor refuses 
to take under the conditions specified in Arts. 46 and 39. Under these circumstances 
the contractor will be bound to allow the lumberman to bring his workmen and tools 
into the felhng area. . . . 

jIj-I^ ^j[_ — All collection or removal of cones, where the trees are standing or feUed, is 
strictly forbidden. These products are not part of the sale and their removal will be 
prosecuted in accordance with the provisions of Art. 44 of the Forest Code. 

jIj-I^ ji^2. — The contractors may establish in the interior of the felhng areas workshops 
for the manufacture of wood, huts, charcoal pits, forges, distillation outfits, and steam 
sawmills only after making a demand (free from stamp rights) of the local Waters and 
Forests agent who shall designate in writing the location and areas where leaves, moss, 
stones, brush, and sod considered necessary (for construction purposes) shall be removed. 
This material shall be granted free of charge, but the holes caused by the trees' removal 
shall be immediately filled up and leveled. Charcoal pits shall be surrounded at 4.4 
yards from their base by a ditch 4.9 inches wide at the bottom. The groimd between 
the base of the charcoal pit and the ditch surrounding it shall be entirely cleared. Fire 
cannot be lighted before October 1 and will be put out before March 1 of each year. 
The chimneys of steam engines and other similar apparatus must be covered with metal 
screens, fine enough to prevent the ejection of sparks. The contractors must, besides, 
take all precautions prescribed by the Waters and Forests agent and shall be bound to 
conform to the laws and rules in force. Under any circumstances they shall be held 
responsible for damage resulting from the use of these machines and apparatus and 
from fire which occurs in consequence. 

Art. 43- — The contractor shall have the privilege of constructing, in the cutting 
area, on areas indicated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative, 
huts for the lodgement of the resin workers. These huts shall be required to be demol- 
ished and the material removed within two months after the period fixed for the com- 
pletion of the removal of the timber or of the tapping. In default, or beyond this period, 
the houses will become the property of the owner of the forest. 

Art. 44- ^Existing houses which can be put at the disposal of the contractor will 
be suitably maintained during the period of exploitation and rendered in perfect state 
of habitation. 

Other special rules which bind the contractor are as follows: 

He can build new roads where necessary. 

He is forbidden to drag wood on carriage roads, to sUde or roll wood down steep 
slopes or to graze work animals in the forest. The removal of all products must be 
finished by November 15 for improvement cuttings and by April 15 for regeneration 
fellings. 

The other rules are similar to those given under timber-sales clauses, p. 438 of the 
Appendix. 



RULES FOR TAPPING IN THE NAINI TAL DIVISION AS AT PRESENT 

IN FORCE 

The following revised tapping rules are circulated for guidance : 

2. Attached is a statement showing the areas so far set aside for tapping. Early in 
the year the trees in the areas set aside for tapping will be numbered with a serial number 
as the numerator and the numbers of the channels as the denominator, e. g., 2674/2 
which means that 2,674 is the serial number and 2 the number of pots the tree is to 
carry. Each compartment will have a series of its own. The forester or a trusty forest 
guard can number the compartments to be light tapped and the range officer those 



434 APPENDIX 

compartments to be heavy tapped. Heavy tapping will be only carried out in those 
areas to be felled for firewood within the next 5 years and only those trees in them will 
be heavy tapped that are to come out at the felling, the remaining trees in the coupe 
being hght tapped. 

NUMBER OF POTS PER TREE 

3. Light tapping. — One pot for trees between 3| feet and 41 feet in girth. 

Two pots for trees between 4^ feet and 7 feet in girth. 
Three pots for trees over 7 feet in girth. 

Heavy tapping. — • One pot for every foot in girth of bark. 

METHOD OF TAPPING! HANGING OF THE POTS 

4. Having arranged for pots, tools and lips, the pots will be hung on the trees as 
follows: Choose places for the pots at the base of the tree, taking care that when two 
or more pots are prescribed that they are equidistant from each other, then cut a channel 
4 inches wide by 1 inch deep and about 6 inches long at the base, so as to allow a free 
hang to the top, place the lip (a piece of thin iron sheet 5 inches by I5 inches) in a 
curved incision (made by a special chisel with that curve), care being taken that the 
lip slopes downward from the tree and underneath toward a side drive in a nail on to 
which the pot will be hung. 

The channel when first cut should be 4 inches to 6 inches long above the lip. For 
the cutting of a channel an ordinary sharp adze is required. When commencing work 
for the year on trees already tapped, the old lip will be extracted and inserted at the 
head of the previous year's channel, the pot being hung below it as before. 

FRESHENING 

5. For this a very sharp adze (Basula) is required. As the flow ceases, which, accord- 
ing to the time of year, may be after one, two or three weeks, a point on which the 
range officer and beat guards must be particularly careful, the channel will require 
freshening at the top. This is done by the removal of a thin shaving not more than 2| 
inches of the vertical length of the tree. The flow has ceased because of the clogging 
of the outlet of the resin ducts, and all that is necessary is to remove those clogged and 
to open out other ducts — the ducts more or less ramifying through some 2 inches or so 
of outer wood in a vigorous first-class tree. 

No hard-and-fast rule can be fixed as to the length of the channel to be cut each 
year, as this depends on the extent of the freshening necessary and on the tree itself as a 
resin-producer. A maximum of 15 inches, however, is fixed; but the less the better, 
as the longer the use of the ladder is postponed the more quickly can work be done. 

The cutting of the bark on the sides of the channel is not allowed; simply remove 
the old pieces of loose bark by hand and put a piece of bark over the pot itself to pre- 
vent foreign matter falling into the resin. 

COLLECTION 

6. As the pots become full they must be emptied of their resin. Here again no fi.xed 
period can be fixed, but during the season of greatest flow once every fifteen days is 
necessary, but otherwise not less than once a month. As a rule, the resin should not be 
allowed to reach within | inch of the nail hole or the top of the pot, whichever is lowest. 

The collection will be made by means of wooden spoons, the resin being put into 
kerosene oil tins fixed up with a handle, which will be emptied into other tins at con- 
venient centers for transport to Bhowali. 

7. Tapping will go on for five successive years between about March 15 and Novem- 
ber 15, according to season and then a rest of 10 years, so that during 14 years the 
4-inch channel should be closed over by callous formed on the sides. 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 435 

United States Forest Service — Florida National Forest 

SAMPLE TURPENTINE PERMIT 

December 11, 1911. 
In consideration of the granting to us of this permit to work for turpentine certain 
longleaf and slash pine timber on an area to be definitely designated by a forest officer 
before cupping begins, located in Sections 14, 24, and 26, T. 2 N., R. 21 W., Talla- 
hassee Meridian, within the Florida National Forest, estimated to contain 19,000 
cups more or less, we do hereby promise to pay to the First National Bank of Albu- 
querque, New Mexico (U. S. Depository), for said permit at the rate of $86 per thousand 
cups in two payments of at least one-half of the total amount due, credit being given 
for the sums, if any, hitherto deposited with the said First National Bank of Albuquerque 
in connection with this permit; and we further promise and agree, should this permit 
be granted to us, to work said timber in strict accordance with the following and all 
other related regulations governing the National Forests and prescribed by the De- 
partment of Agriculture: 

1. Timber on vahd claims and timber under other contract is exempt from this 
permit. 

2. No tree will be cupped, chipped, raked, or worked in any manner until the first 
payment has been made. 

3. No gum or other product of the timber will be removed before the cups on the 
area have been counted and recorded. Title to the product of the timber included in 
this permit will not pass to the permittee until it has been paid for as herein prescribed. 

4. No timber will be cupped except that on the area designated by a forest officer; 
and no marked trees or trees under the diameter limits will be cupped or chipped under 
any consideration. 

5. No tree 10 inches or less in diameter will be cupped; not more than one cup will 
be placed on trees from 11 to 15 inches inclusive in diameter; not more than two cups 
will be placed on trees from 16 inches to 25 inches inclusive in diameter, and not more 
than three cups will be placed on any tree. All diameter measurements are to be taken 
at a point 2| feet above the ground. 

6. So far as possible, the depth of all streaks will average one-half inch or less, and 
in no case will the depth of streaks exceed three-quarters of an inch not including bark. 
The width of the streaks will be so regulated that no more than one-half inch of new 
wood will be taken from the upper side with each streak and so that the total height 
of the faces shall not exceed fifty inches during the hfe of this permit. Bars or strips 
of bark no less than 4 inches wide in the narrowest place will be left between faces, and 
the edges of faces will be parallel with each other and be placed vertically up the tree. 
So far as possible, where more than one face is placed on a tree, one bar between them 
will not exceed 6 inches in width. No more than one streak will be placed on any face 
during any one week. The chipping will be uniform in depth from shoulder to peak. 
Faces not chipped in accordance with these specifications may be marked out and the 
cups removed by the forest officer. 

7. One of the modern cupping systems wiU be used, and the cups and aprons or 
gutters will be so placed that the shoulders of the first streak will not be more than 12 
inches distant from the bottom of the cup and the cups will be placed as near the 
ground as possible. No wood will be exposed on any tree by removing the bark below 
the gutter or aprons. 

8. No unnecessary damage will be done to cupped trees, marked trees, or to trees 
below the diameter limit. Trees that are badly damaged during the life of this permit, 
when such damage is due to carelessness or negligence on the part of the permittee, 



436 APPENDIX 

shall be paid for at the rate of $5 per 1,000 feet b. m., full scale, and the forest super- 
visor shall decide as to the presence and extent of damage. 

9. No cups will be placed later than March 1, 1912, without written permission 
from the forest supervisor, and all timber embraced in this permit will be cupped before 
said date. 

10. Unless extension of time is granted, all timber will be cupped, chipped, dipped, 
scraped; the product and all cups, aprons, gutters and nails removed and each cupped 
tree thoroughly raked to the satisfaction of the forest officer, on or before and not later 
than January 1, 1915. 

11. No fires shall be set to the timber, underbrush or grass on the area included in 
this permit without the written permission of the forest supervisor, and every effort 
will be made by us, our employees, sub-contractors and employees of sub-contractors, 
to prevent the burning over of said area from any unauthorized cause; and during the 
time that this permit remains in force and effect we and all our employees, sub-contrac- 
tors and employees of sub-contractors, without any charge whatsoever to the Forest 
Service, will do all in our power both independently and on request of forest officers to 
prevent and suppress unauthorized forest fires. 

12. All cupped trees will be raked in a workmanlike manner for the space of 2^ 
feet around each tree before January 1 of each year of the life of this permit; and a fire 
line not less than 3 feet wide in the narrowest place shall be hoed or plowed around the 
area covered by this permit in such a manner as to completely isolate it from adjoining 
lands. Natural fire brakes, such as creeks, swamps, roads, etc., may be utilized with 
the consent of the forest officer. These fire lines must be made and receive the approval 
of the forest officer before any cups are placed the first year or new streaks made at 
the beginning of the second and third years. 

13. Special-use permits will be obtained for such cabins, shelters, camps, telephone 
lines, etc., as may be required on Government land in carrying out the terms of this 
permit. 

14. The first payment shall be made before the cups are placed the first year and the 
second payment shall be made on or before December 31, 1912. 

The decision of the district forester shall be final in the interpretation of the regula- 
tions governing this permit. 

Work may be suspended by the forest supervisor if the regulations contained in this 
permit are disregarded, and the violation of any one of said regulations, if persisted in, 
shall be sufficient cause for the district forester to revoke this permit and to cancel all 
other permits for other privileges. 

"No member of or delegate to Congress, or resident commissioner, after his election 
or appointment, and either before or after he has quahfied and during his continuance 
in office, and no officer, agent, or employee of the Government shall be admitted to any 
share or part of this contract or agreement, or to any benefit to arise thereupon. Noth- 
ing, however, herein contained shall be construed to extend to any incorporated com- 
pany, where such permit or agreement is made for the general benefit of such incorpora- 
tion or company. (Section 3741 R. S. and Sections 114-116, Act of March 4, 1909.) " 

No person undergoing a sentence of imprisonment at hard labor can be employed in 
carrying out the terms of this permit. (See Executive Order of May 18, 1905.) 

Refund of deposits under this permit will be made only at the discretion of the district 
forester, except when the amount of such deposits is more than the total amount re- 
quired under this permit. 

This permit is non-assignable. (See Section 3737, Revised Statutes of the United 
States.) 

The conditions of this permit are completely set forth herein, and none of its terms 
can be varied or modified e.xcept with the written consent of the forest supervisor. 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 437 

No subordinate forest officer has, or will be given authority for this purpose. If re- 
quired as a guarantee of a faithful performance of the conditions of this permit we 
will submit a bond in the sum of $500, which bond, together with all moneys paid or 
promised under this contract, upon failure on our part to fulfill all and singular the 
conditions and requirements herein set forth, or made a part thereof, shall become the 
property of the United States as liquidated damages and not as penalty. 

CONTRACT STIPULATIONS 

In the dunes of the Gironde and the Landes, the following contract stipulations must 
be followed by contractors: 

Chapter I. — General Rules. — Fixation and Maintenance of Dunes. 

Art 1. — The dunes are fixed according to plans by the director of works, (a) by 
sowing with ground cover or {h) by the plantation of maram grass {Psamma are?iaria), 
and (c) by broadcast sowing or transplanting in the waterholes between the dimes. 

SOWING WITH COVER AND TRANSPLANTING 

Art. 2. — Contractors shall use per acre of dune: (o) The amounts of maritime pine 
seed, genista or gorse, and maram specified in the plans; (6) the number of brush fagots 
properly called "bourees" likewise to be determined by the plan (80 to 400 per acre) and 
a<;cording to the conditions detailed in Art. 9 which follows. The transplanting of the 
water-hollows between the dunes shall be at the rate of (except upon contrary stipulation) 
3.5 pounds of pine seed and 1.7 pounds of genista or gorse seed per acre. 

PLANTATION OF MARAM (GOTJRBET) 

Art 3. — When maram is planted the tufts are placed in quincunx, spaced 1.6 feet 
apart; the spacing of the clumps may be, however, on order of the director of works, 
reduced to 8 inches or increased to 3.3 feet. The maram shall be planted in conformity 
with the rules in Art. 10. 

PALISADES, BARRIERS 

Art. 4- — Contractors shall use for each 328 linear feet (109 yards) of palisades an 
average of 500, 5.2 feet in length, 1.2 inches thick, and between 6.7 and 8.6 inches in 
width. The stakes for the woven barriers shall, according to the orders of the local 
agents, have a length between 8.2 feet and 29 inches. For each 328 linear feet of barrier 
the following stakes and fagots shall be set: 200 stakes 8.2 to 4.9 feet in length, 80 fagots; 
200 stakes 4.1 feet in length, 60 fagots; 200 stakes 3.3 feet in length, 40 fagots; 200 
stakes 29 inches in length, 20 fagots; per 328 linear feet of simple barrier (cordon), 70 
fagots. 

EXCAVATIONS 

Art. 5. — The fagots for excavations shall be set in holes 16 to 20 inches in circumfer- 
ence with a depth of 16 inches, and separated 12 to 16 inches from circumference to 
circumference, according to the instructions of the director of works. The height shall 
vary fjom 8 to 24 inches above the soil according to the locality. 

LEVELING 

Art. 6. — The places to be leveled shall be worked to a depth of 14 inches and the 
ground shall be cleared of all vegetation and debris whatsoever which could stop the 
movement of the sand. The green maram susceptible of being replanted will be care- 
fully taken out, made into bundles, and heeled in; the maram which cannot be used and 
debris of all kinds will be placed in the nearest excavations. 



438 APPENDIX 

THINNING THE MARAM 

Art. 7. — The maram, where it is too thick, will be thinned in conformity to the pre- 
scriptions of the director of works. The stumps which are removed will be dug out and 
deposited where specified by the foreman. 

Chapter II. — Places of Extraction. — Nature and Quality of the Material. — Fagots 
and Stakes. 

Art. 8. — The fagots and stakes wiU come from the places indicated by the agents in 
the State forest and situated at the average distance specified in the plans. Without 
special authorization from the supervisor (chef de service) they cannot be removed from 
the so-called protection zone. The thinnings will be under the direction of a forest em- 
ployee and conducted without interruption, as the work proceeds. When the work is 
stopped at any point the boundary of the area thinned shall be regularized so far as 
possible by straight lines. If the brush and the stakes cannot be secured in sufficient 
quantities, or are completely lacking in the Federal forest, the contractor must procure 
them at his expense in private forests, provided, however, that the average distance of 
transport shall not exceed the average distance specified in the plans. 

Art. 9. — The brush and the stakes shall be used green. The fagots shall not include 
cones or branches with a diameter of more than 1.2 inches. Maritime pine, genista or 
gorse, shall be used for their manufacture instead of heather, unless specially stipulated 
in the plans. The brush fagots must weigh at least 44 pounds from September 1 to 
May 31 and 33 pounds from June 1 to August 31 ; those which do not come up to the 
proper weight shall be rejected and immediately rebundled. No account shall be made 
for the contractor for the fagots which exceed the stated weight. The stakes . . . 
4.9 to 8.2 feet shall have a minimum diameter of 2.4 inches at the small end. Those 4.1 
feet and less shall not be less than 2 inches in diameter at the small end. 



^^l jQ — The maram to be transplanted shall be secured in the areas designated by 
the director of works at the average distance indicated in the plans and extraction shall 
be made by . . • 

APPENDIX G 

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE REGULATIONS 

The regular contract conditions and clauses were issued by the administration at 
Paris, June 22, 1903, and revised May 27, 1909, and again May 11, 1912. The following 
translation of Part III — Exploitation, is given in full since it is basic for all timber 
sales throughout France unless exceptions are made in the special clauses issued by the 
local conservators. 

PART III. — EXPLOITATION ^ 

j^^rt. 17. — Every successful bidder who, before the delivery of the cutting permit, 
shall demand a recount because of an alleged deficit in the number of trees indicated 
in the record of the trees reserved and marked for cutting binds himself, merely by his 
request, to pay at the depository of the collector for the local Canton an indemnity of 
10 francs per day's work for each agent and 3 francs per day's work for each guard, if 
there is found to be no deficit. 

' Part I describes the routine of the auction; Part II explains payments, charges, 
stamp rights, and registry. See page 292. 



STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 439 

Art. 18, — The permit to cut will be delivered by the agent of Waters and Forests 
service, chief of service, on the presentation of certificates showing that the purchaser 
has put up his securities or security, furnished his remittances, promissory notes, or cash 
and made the payments required under Art. 12 of this circular. 

The Waters and Forests agent will sign these papers. He will besides give to the pur- 
chaser if he asks for them : (a) A copy of the minutes of his auction, as soon as they have 
been verified at the Secretary's office at the place of sale; (6) a copy of the sales circular 
and of the special clauses; (c) a copy of the special circular for the articles, clauses, and 
conditions which concern him when this bill of sale is added to the auction circular; 
(d) a copy of the survey notes and, if there is one, a map of the felling area. All these 
papers shall be vised for stamps. 

Art. 19. — The contractor shall send the permit to the ranger in charge and inform 
him in advance of the day he plans to start cutting. 

Art. 20. — Unless otherwise indicated or supplementary to the special auction clauses 
the wood shall be cut : 

In the coppice fellings: " a tire et aire " with the axe as close to the ground as possible, 
and so that the water cannot remain on the stumps. The roots must remain intact. 

In the high forest fellings : level with the ground, with the axe or saw. 

Conifers marked for cutting in coppice felling areas may also be sawed down. 

Art. 21 . — When the sales circular authorizes or prescribes felling with stump ex- 
traction, the purchasers must fill up and level the holes made by the uprooted trees as 
the cutting proceeds. 

Art. 22. — The purchasers shall be bound to limb and top before felling only those 
trees marked for cutting which have been previously designated by the Waters and 
Forests Service. The number of these trees and how they have been designated shall 
be given in the sales circular. The wood resulting from the operations including that 
from the preliminary work of hmbing and topping undertaken voluntarily by the suc- 
cessful l:)idders shall be immediately removed, and especially before further felling, 
when it covers young growth or seedlings. 

Art. 23. — The trees shall be felled, so far as possible, so as not to damage those 
reserved and cut areas where there is no young growth. In felling areas on a rapid slope 
the trees shall be felled, unless otherwise authorized, in the direction of the slope, with 
the crown up hill. 

Art. 24. — As cutting proceeds, the purchasers in coppice fellings shall be bound, 
unless waived in the sales circular, to remove old stumps and to cut level with the 
ground the boles bent or broken, the brush, brambles, weeds, shrubs, and injurious 
undergrowth. 

This cleaning is not obhgatory in high forest felhngs unless prescribed in the contract. 

Art. 25. — The small branches and limbs shall be removed and piled, as the cutting 
proceeds, so as not to obstruct hauling in the felling areas. 

Art. 26. — The material resulting from cording the small branches and limbs shall 
be stacked or placed in piles as cutting proceeds. 

Art. 27. — The cutting of wood shall be finished by April 15 after award. 

The wood peeled by virtue of the contract shall be cut before July 1. 

The cording of small brandies and limbs, including piling or stacking the material 
resulting from this cording, shall be finished by June 1 following the award. 

As regards the small branches and limbs resulting from wood peeled by virtue of 
the contract, this period is extended to July 15 following. 

If local conditions necessitate other terms they will be given in the special clauses 
of the contract. 

Art. 28. — Every purchaser who cannot finish felling or cording during the pre- 
scribed period and who requires an extension shall be bound to make the request of 



440 APPENDIX 

the conservator, on stamped paper at least 20 days before the expiration of the afore- 
said period. This request shall explain the area or the amount of timber remaining to 
be cut, or else the amount and kind of wood remaining to be corded, the causes of the 
delay in the logging, and the extension that it is necessary to have. It will be judged 
on its merits by the conservator. The purchaser, solely by his request for an extension 
of time for logging, obligates himself to pay the indemnities fixed by the administration. 
The extension will run from the day of the expiration in the periods fixed in the pre- 
ceding article. In case the purchasers do not make use of the extensions which they 
have been granted, they cannot obtain a refund of the charge made, except after a 
report from the agent of Waters and Forests local officer in charge, dated at the latest 
on the day of the expiration of the felling period, stamped and registered at their ex- 
pense and showing unmistakably that they could not profit by the extension. 

Art. 29. — The purchaser is forbidden, at least unless the sales circular contains an 
explicit authorization, to peel or bark standing any wood in his sale, under the penalties 
prescribed by Art. 36 of the Forest Code. 

Art. SO. — It is also forbidden: (a) To leave branches, twigs, chips or bark on areas 
stocked with seedlings; {h) To place or pile wood on seedlings, live stumps, or against 
reserved trees; (c) To notch these trees on the bole or roots or to drive nails; {d) To 
pile the products of logging outside the boundaries of the felling area, except on land- 
ings specially designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative. 

Art. 31. — The purchasers must remove, as the cutting proceeds, the wood which 
falls into the lanes separating felling areas. 

Art. 32. — They must always keep the roads open in the felling areas, so that wagons 
can pass at any time. 

Art. S3. — The purchaser will protect all the reserved trees, whatever their quality 
and number. In no case, nor under any pretext whatever, can any reserved tree be 
marked for the purchaser, even when it may be found that there are more than recorded 
in the marking and sales report. He wUl protect (coppice) standards of every age 
class and other reserved trees, even if they may be broken, or overturned by the wind, 
or damaged by an act of Providence independent of the logging. He will be bound 
to preserve them, as well as their crowns and branches. 

Art. 34- — When a tree marked for cutting shall lodge in its fall on a reserved tree, 
the purchaser cannot fell this reserve until after the local Waters and Forests agent 
or his representative shaU have recognized the necessity for felling. 

Art. 35. — Whenever, despite the observance of the felling rules applicable to the 
cutting areas, the reserves shall have been overturned by logging, or when the reserves 
shall have been knocked down under the conditions anticipated in the preceding article, 
the purchaser shall be bound, if the Waters and Forests agent considers it necessary, 
to replace these reserves by trees taken from those marked for felling. These trees 
shall be chosen by the aforesaid agent and marked with his special marking hatchet. 
Under no circumstances can the value of the tree thus designated exceed that of the 
trees replaced. If the restitution is not required or if it is effected by trees less valuable 
than those reserves overturned or knocked down, the purchaser will pay as damages 
the value of these reserves or the difference between their value and that of the trees 
marked to replace them, after a check valuation has been made. The valuation of the 
reserves can never be less than the following established minimum: 

COMPOUND COPPICE FELLING AREAS 

Standard of the first rotation, $0.03 per 3.9 inches of circumference.* 
Standard of the second rotation, 0.06 per 3.9 inches of circumference. 
Standard of the third rotation, 0.09 per 3.9 inches of circumference. 

* These figures are for circumferences made 3.3 feet above the ground. 



STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 441 

HIGH FOREST FELLING AREAS 

Saplings 20 inches in circumference — -$0.03 per 3.9 inches of circumference.* 

Trees 24- 43 inches in circumference — - 0.06 per 3.9 inches of circumference. 
Trees 47- 75 inches in circumference — 0.08 per 3.9 inches of circumference. 
Trees 79-114 inches in circumference — • 0.09 per 3.9 inches of circumference. 
Trees 118 inches in circumference and over, 0.11 per 3.9 inches of circumference. 

* These figures are for circumferences made 3.3 feet above the ground. 

When reserves are damaged the same procedure shall be followed as for reserves 
overturned or knocked down, if the local agent decides that they cannot thrive if left 
standing. If, on the contrary, the local Waters and Forests agent beheves that the 
damaged reserves may conveniently be left standing the purchaser will pay the amount 
of damage caused the reserve in accordance with the estimate which shall be made by 
the aforesaid agent. 

A record of these estimates and charges shall be prepared, which shall be signed by 
the contractor or his agent, and addressed to the conservator, who, after having checked 
and approved it, will see to the collection of the amounts due. This certificate is 
exempt from stamp rights and registry. (Art. 80 of the law of May 15, 1818.) 

Notwithstanding all replacements or payments made by the purchaser in accordance 
with the provisions of this article, the reserves overturned, knocked down, or damaged, 
will continue to belong to the owner of the forest. 

Art. 36. — After violation of the clauses and conditions of the sale, relative to the 
method of felling and cleaning of the cutting areas, shall be punished in conformity 
with Art. 37 of the Forest Code. 

Art. 37. — The purchaser can establish within the cutting area, huts, charcoal pits, 
or pitch and tar pits, temporary lime kilns, and yards for the sawing and sale of wood 
provided the request is made to the local Waters and Forests agent who will designate 
in writing the areas to be occupied and these where the leaves, moss, stones, cinders, 
and necessary grass be removed. These products will be granted free, but the holes 
resulting from their removal must be immediately filled and leveled. 

Art. 38. — The purchasers will have the right to install portable sawmills in their 
felling areas, for the manufacture of the wood, on areas designated by the local Waters 
and Forests agent. They must cover the furnace smokestacks with a metalhc screen, 
fine enough to prevent any cinders from coming out, and must take every precaution 
which is prescribed by the Waters and Forests agent. They are besides bound to 
conform to the relating laws and regulations. They will in any event be held responsible 
for damages which may result from the use of these machines. 

Art. 39. — If it is recognized that the purchasers cannot find a sufficient quantity 
of withes among the products which they have purchased, and provided the stand 
allows it, they can be granted free on the authorization of the local Waters and Forests 
agent in charge. They will be cut on places designated by the local agent or his repre- 
sentative by workmen agreed upon by him, and cannot be removed until after having 
been counted by the aforesaid agent or his delegate. 

PART IV. — LOGGING 

Art. 40. — The hauling shall take place along roads designated in the sales report or 
sales circular. Nevertheless on the purchaser's request the conservator may, while the 
logging is in progress, designate other logging roads or authorize the establishment of 
new ones. Merely by his request the purchaser will be bound to pay the indemnity 
or to complete the work at his own expense, unless he gives up the privilege. 

Art. 41. — Unless otherwise stipulated it is forbidden: (a) To skid timber on wagon 



442 APPENDIX 

roads; (&) to slide or roll wood down the slopes; (c) to graze work or pack animals or 
allow them to pasture in the forests and even to lead them unmuzzled into felling areas 
stocked with seedlings or young growth. Logs or squared timbers cannot be skidded 
on the surface of felling areas except under unusual circumstances, which the local 
Waters and Forests agent will decide upon. 

Art. 42- — When the purchaser wishes to dispense with the removal of small branches 
and other logging debris, he must burn them on areas which will be designated by the 
local Waters and Forests agent or his representative unless the sales circular contains 
an explicit authorization to scatter them on the feUing area. 

He must take every necessary precaution that this (brush) burning does not damage 
either the new growth or reserved trees, and he will be held responsible for any damage 
which may result even when carried out in the presence of and under the supervision 
of Waters and Forests officers and employees. 

Art. 43. — The sawdust and bark from manufactured wood will be removed, spread 
on forest roads, or burned under the conditions specified in the preceding article. 

Art. 44- — Unless the special sales clauses specify other periods, the logging must 
be completed within one year dating from April 15 following the auction. 

Art. 45- — The provisions of Art. 28, relative to felling delays, are (also) applicable 
to logging delays. 

Art. 46. — ■ The provisions of Art. 35 are applicable to the reserves which, despite 
the observance of the rules governing the removal of the wood, shall be overturned or 
damaged by logging. 

Art. 47- — The purchasers on Federal sales must pay to the communes the special 
subsidies, to which they must be entitled, under Art. 14 of the law of May 21, 1836, 
and under Art. 11 of the law of August 20, 1881, for extraordinary (exceptional) damage 
caused by hauling sales products on roads, classed as parish or rural. 

Art. 48- — Unless waived by the Waters and Forests officer in charge the purchasers 
must, three days before the date fixed for the check (of the sales area) : Surround with 
a conspicuous band all standing trees in the felling areas where reserved trees have been 
marked; place visible stakes near the stumps of trees felled in the felling areas where 
the trees were marked for cutting. They will see to it that these stakes are protected 
up to the date for the check. If the purchasers fail to fulfil the above requirements, 
it can be done at their expense in accordance with the provisions of Art. 41 of the 
Forest Code. 

PART v. — CHECK (OF SALES AREA) 

Art. 49. — Under penalty of the law the purchasers must show the imprint of the 
Federal marking hatchet on all wood and trees reserved, and in the felling areas marked 
for cutting, on the stumps of trees cut, at the time the felling area is checked over. 

Art. 50. — In the felling areas, where the trees were marked for cutting, and when the 
stumps are removed in logging, the root bearing the imprint of the marking hatchet 
must remain intact in the ground. 

Art. 51 . — The purchaser who wishes to obtain, after the stump check, the certificate 
mentioned in paragraph 4 of Art. 8, must present to the Waters and Forests agent in 
charge receipts showing that he has made the payments required under Arts. 59 and 61. 

He must besides prove payment for the products sold on the unit of product basis 
when his felling area requires it. 

PART VI. — ACCESSORY SALE ON THE UNIT BASIS 

Art. 52. — When the sale contract binds the purchaser to make within the boundary 
of his felhng area, in addition to the main logging, accessory fellings with the obligation 



STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 443 

of taking the products of these operations at a fixed price, the purchaser must complete 
this logging within the period fixed by the special sales clauses or as shall be indicated 
by the local Waters and Forests agent. 

Art. 53. — The purchasers cannot, under the penalties given in Arts. 33 and 34 of 
the Forest Code, fell or cord wood other than that which has been designated by the 
local agent or his representative. 

Art. 54- — He must manufacture the wood into material corresponding to the specifi- 
cations established in making the (unit) price and must pUe this material by classes. 

Art. 55. — The scaling of the products will first be made in a preliminary report which 
will be checked jointly by the local Waters and Forests agent and the purchaser and 
approved by the conservator. 

Art. 56. — The purchaser cannot remove the wood, or dispose of it, until he has 
obtained a permit, which will be delivered to him by the local Waters and Forests agent 
in charge, after the approval of the inventory by the conservator. 

In case this rule is violated the purchaser must pay as damages double the value of 
the products unduly removed, besides the cost of stamping and registering the record of 
proof, and without prejudicing the punitive fines which may be levied. If the amount 
and grade of the wood removed have not been estabhshed, the value then shall be fixed 
by the officiating conservator. 

Art. 57. — The purchasers of national fellings shall pay at the depository of the federal 
collector: (a) For an extension of three months the total amount inventoried; {h) for 
an extension of 10 days 1 franc, 60 per cent of the total amount inventoried (not yet 
logged), the proportional registry charges, and, if there are any, the proportional surety 
charges. 

The purchasers of communal or public institution felling areas shall pay for extensions 
the amounts indicated above : (a) At the depository of the collector for the commune or 
public institution, the total amount inventoried; (6) at the depository of the registry 
collector, the proportional registry charges, and, if there are any, the proportional surety 
charges. 

The extension shall run from the date of the approval of the inventory by the con- 
servator. 

Art. 58. — All the conditions of the present circular which are not modified by the 
provisions of this section are applicable to the accessory sales which form a part of it. 

FART VII. — LABOR AND MATERIAL 

Art. 59. — The purchasers must deduct the amount of wood given in the sale circular 
from the material felled and furnish it to the Waters and Forests employees, communes, 
public institutions, and right holders. The employees' wood and, unless otherwise 
stipulated, that due the communes, public institutions, and right holders, must be of 
good merchantable quality and put up in accordance with local usage. It must be ready 
for receipt on the cutting area by the dates given in the sales circular and handed to the 
places designated in the advertisement within 15 days counting from the time it is re- 
ceived. The local Waters and Forests agent's report accompanied by the acquittance 
of the receivers will suffice as a release for the purchasers. 

Art. 60. — In fellings comprising a sale on the unit basis, when the wood to be de- 
livered, in accordance with the preceding article, cannot be whoUy secured from the 
material sold on this basis, they can complete it from an additional sale on the unit 
basis, but the wood thus levied will be included when the material is scaled, and will be 
paid for by the purchaser. 

Art. 61. — The labor and materials levied on the felling areas shall be completed up 
to the values given in the sales circular, under the direction of the local Waters and For- 



444 APPENDIX 

ests officer in charge by contractors and workmen agreed upon and when he chooses. 
The purchasers will pay the contractors and laborers on sight of the certificates which 
will be issued by this agent, and which, duly receipted by the assignees, will form a 
release. The payment must be made by the purchaser within 15 days counting from the 
deUvery of the reported receipt of the labor and materials. 

Art. 62. — Nevertheless, so far as communal felling areas are concerned, the sales 
circulars can require the immediate payment for all material and labor at the depository 
of the communal collector, and the receipts for these payments must then be presented 
to the Waters and Forests officer in charge along with the papers enumerated in Art. 18. 
The municipal collector will pay the assignees directly upon sight of any order issued by 
the mayor upon the production of a receipt showing the material or labor has been 
received, signed by the local Waters and Forests agent, and countersigned by the officer 
in charge. 

Art. 63. — ^The purchasers are also obliged: (a) To dig, level, replant or sow areas 
occupied by their huts or workshops; (b) to repair the lanes or ditches crossing or bound- 
ing the feUing areas; (c) to reestablish boundary pillars, enclosures, posts, walls, fences, 
etc., damaged or destroyed because of logging or hauling wood. 

Art. 64- — If the purchasers fail to live up to the obhgations enumerated in Arts. 59, 
61, and 63 of Part VII it will be done at their cost under the direction of the Waters and 
Forests Service, in conformity with the provisions of Art. 41 of the Forest Code. 

PART VIII. — MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS 

Art. 65. — The sales agent which the purchaser may have, in conformity with Art. 
31 of the Forest Code, cannot be the kinsman or related by marriage to the guard of 
the beat, nor to the local agents. He must be agreed upon by the Waters and Forests 
officer in charge and sworn before the justice of the peace. 

Art. 66. — The purchasers must: (a) Refrain from working laborers, lumberjacks, 
and teamsters Sundays or holidays; this rule may be waived in virtue of an authorization 
given by the Waters and Forests officer in charge. (6) Not employ foreign workmen 
except in the proportion which shall be fixed by the special sales clauses. 

Each (original) purchaser must besides when working Federal forests, place or cause 
to be placed under the regime of the law of April 9, 1898, all lumberjacks working in 
the felling areas either when they are doing the logging themselves, or when it is being 
done through contractors or when the felling areas may have been resold before ex- 
ploitation began. 

When repeated violations of the provisions of this article may have been proven 
against any purchaser, the Waters and Forests director general may decree his temporary 
or permanent exclusion from the auctions of felling areas of State wood, without prejudic- 
ing suits which may be brought against him. 

Art. 67. — The purchasers as well as their foremen, employees, lumberjacks, work- 
men, and teamsters cannot let their dogs run loose in the forests. Dogs guarding huts, 
workshops, or yards must always be tied or shut up. 

Art. 68. — The purchaser will conform, besides, to the special provisions of the Forest 
Code and to the ordinance of August 1, 1827, which concerns him. 

Art. 69. — Every violation of the conditions of the sale, for which an exemption is 
not given by the present "circular" or the Forest Code, will require the payment of 10 
francs by right of civil damage, besides the stamp costs and the cost of registering the 
brief of proof, without prejudicing civil punitive suits which may be entered. 

Approved May 29, 1909, by the Secretary of Agriculture. 



STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 445 

SALE OF FELLING AREAS ON THE STUMP BY UNIT OF PRODUCT 

CONTRACT CLAUSES 

Part 1. — Auction. — 

Art. 1. — Sales by unit of product take place under the clauses and conditions of the 
general sales circular, except as modified by the provisions which follow. 

Art. 2. — The sale includes, without guarantee as to area, number of trees or amount, 
all the timber designated in the felling area at any time during exploitation by Waters 
and Forests officers and employees, on condition that the purchaser fells it and works 
it up and pays the price based on the valuation survey approved by the Waters and 
Forests conservator, in accordance with the rate established by the auction record. 

Art. 3. — The ownership of the wood will be conveyed to the purchaser from the date 
of approval by the conservator of the valuation survey. Commencing with this date, 
the wood counted will be at the risk and danger of the purchaser, without prejudicing 
the right of reservation in case of bankruptcy or of delayed payment and of the right of 
claiming by means of seizure in case of removal or resale. 

Art. Jj.. — ■ The auction will take place either by decreasing or raising the prices. It 
will be on all the various units of product of which the basis and method of appraisal 
shall be indicated in the advertisement. 

The lowering or raising of the prices will be regulated at so much per cent in accord- 
ance with the basis or method of appraisal. Fractions in hundreds will not be permitted. 

Art. 5. — The auction by lowering the price will take place in the following manner: 
The figure announced by the crier will be successively lowered, in accordance with a 
tariff estabhshed in advance and advertised in the auction room, until someone an- 
nounces the words: "I take it." If several people are bidders simultaneously, the felling 
area is drawn by lot, at least unless one of them does not bid a higher price; the competi- 
tion is then open between them as indicated in the following article. 

Art. 6. — The auction by raising the price will be decided after the extinction of three 
tapers lighted in succession. If the duration of the last of the three tapers outlasts 
the increases in price, the auction will not be judged until after the extinction of a final 
fire without increase in price. 

Art. 7. — In conformity with the provisions of the first paragraph of Art. 8 of the 
general sales circular, the purchaser will be bound to furnish security and a surety. 

These securities will be received subject to the approval of the federal collector in 
the case of felling areas of federal wood, and subject to the approval of the mayors and 
municipal collectors, administrators, and public institution collectors for the felling 
areas of communal and public institution wood. 

In case of the insolvency of securities, proven by bankruptcy or otherwise, all the 
amounts due shall become immediately demandable, unless the purchaser produces a 
new security acceptable by the collector interested. (Code Civil, Art. 2020.) 

Part II, — Exploitation. — 

Art. 8. — The cutting permit will be delivered to the purchaser by the local Waters 
and Forests officer in charge, on presentation of the certificate showing he has furnished 
his securities. 

Art. 9. — Under penalties carried by Arts. 33 and 34 of the Civil Code, the purchaser 
cannot fell trees other than those which shall have been designated by the local agent 
or his representatives. 

Art. 10. — All the wood, which shall be considered suitable for building timber or in- 
dustrial manufacture by the Waters and Forests officers, shall be left in the log and can- 
not be cut off below the point where the local agent or his representative shall have 
placed his hammer mark for regulating the cutting into logs. 



446 APPENDIX 

The advertisement will show the minimum sizes for this wood, if there are any. 

Art. 11. — Wood which has not been classed as fit for building timber or manufacture 
by the Waters and Forests agents shall be worked into minor construction material 
(small logs, split wood, poles, mine props, etc.) or into firewood (fuel, charcoal, fagots, 
fagot bundles, etc.) so that the commodities manufactured can enter the classes given in 
the sales circular used for the establishment of the price. 

Art. 12. — The minor construction material will be left separate in the log, or laid out 
in lines of ten each, or piled between stakes according as they are regularly placed by 
the purchaser in a class sold by the cubic meter, by the piece, or by the stere. 

Art. 13. — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special sales clauses, the firewood and 
charcoal will be stacked according to local usage. The piles must always contain even 
steres unless there is insufficient material. 

Art. 14.. — The fagots, bundles of fagots, etc., will be stacked in piles of 10, 20, or 25 
or multiples thereof. 

Art. 15. — When the bark is sold separately it will be bound in bundles; it will then 
be stacked as fagots or bundles of fagots. 

Art. 16. — The roots and chips from chopping will be stacked in round piles. 

Art. 17. — All the piles will be made according to the commodity class and in each 
class by lengths. 

Art. 18. — If during the logging the purchaser desires to make a class of commodity 
other than those recited in the sales circular, he will make the request in writing of the 
conservator, who will fix the bases of price for the new product units and will give 
notice to the aforesaid purchaser in writing. 

In case this rule is broken the price of the new commodity classes will be fixed officially 
by the conservator, without prejudicing the application of Art. 69 of the general 
circular. 

Art. 19. — At any time during logging the agents can check the wood to make sure 
of its quantity and class; the piles which shall have been broken will be at once restacked 
by the purchaser. 

Art. 20. — The purchaser will convert and arrange for inclusion in the scaling: (a) 
The wood resulting from windfall, windbreak, and from surveying lines, situated within 
the felling area. However, he will not be held to this obligation if the value of the 
aforesaid wood exceeds by 10 per cent the total amount of the feUing area. (6) The 
wood from lopping if there is any. 

Art. 21. — As the conversion proceeds, wood of all kind, except the trees in the log, 
will be (if there is any) collected at the areas indicated by the special sales clauses. In 
any case it will be arranged for scaling as directed by the Waters and Forests agents or 
their representatives. 

Art. 22. — The purchasers can have the special clauses waived for the conversion of 
branches having at the large end a maximum circumference, determined according to 
local usages and indicated in the advertisement, on condition that they conform to the 
prescriptions of the aforesaid clauses governing the destination for these products. 

Art. 23. — The time for felling and converting (including the grouping, piling, or 
stacking) will be established by the special sales clauses. 

Art. 24. — The withes for the fagot bundles, fagots and bark, resulting from the sale, 
will be given to the purchaser free of charge, who will gather them at his expense under 
the superintendence of the local guard in the places designated by the range officer. If 
the Waters and Forests agents judge that this removal cannot take place, or that it 
should be limited to certain species, mention will be made in the sales circular. 

Art. 25. — Before the permit for removal is given the workmen cannot help them- 
selves, for their own use, to anything except brambles, parasitic plants, or remnants 
designated by the local guard. The removal of this wood and the use of any other kind 



STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 447 

of product will be treated as trespass, and prosecuted in conformity with the provisions 
of the Forest Code. 

Part in. — Scaling. - 

Art. 26. — As soon as the felling area shall have been made ready for receival under 
the conditions above determined, a scale report will be drawn up and checked with the 
purchaser, who will be duly notified. The report will be signed by the officers and em- 
ployees present and by the purchaser or his representative; if he does not want to sign 
or if he is absent this will be noted. This certificate will be submitted for the approval 
of the conservator. Thus approved it will govern the amount due from the purchaser. 
Partial scaling can be authorized by the conservator under exceptional circumstances of 
which he will be the sole judge and under the official conditions of policy which he shall 
determine. 

Art. 27. — Eight days before the date fixed for the scaling by the local Waters and 
Forests officer the purchaser must furnish this agent an inventory of the products to 
scale. 

Art. 28. — The wood classed by the Waters and Forests agents as building material 
and for manufacture shall be cubed as cylinders having a height equal to the length of 
the log and a base equal to the circumference (or diameter of the circumference) or aver- 
age diameter at the middle of the log. The allowances on the length, circumference, and 
diameter shall conform to the methods of measurement and volumetric tables used 
locally and indicated in the advertisement. Circumferences and diameters will be 
measured outside the bark for broadleaves and inside the bark for conifers. When the 
butt (culee) of the tree is not cut (level with the grass) the point to measure the length 
(of the butt log) from will include two-thirds the stump height. 

Art. 29. — The minor construction wood kept in the log, as stated in Art. 12, shall be 
scaled as wood for building or manufacture. 

Art. SO. — All the other products shall be counted in the class to which they naturally 
belong according to method of conversion, grouping, and piling. 

Art. 31. — The stacks of wood piled between stacks shall be treated as rectangular 
prisms having the same length as the wood, and the width and height of the pile. 

Art. 32. — The minor construction material designed for the mines can be partially 
peeled according to custom without any increase in value on accoimt of the loss in 
volume. 

Part IV. — Removal of the Wood. — 

Art. 33. — The purchaser cannot remove any wood until he has obtained a permit 
which will be dehvered to him by the local Waters and Forests officer in charge, after 
the approval of the scale report by the conservator. In case of violation the purchaser 
will be bound to pay as damages twice the value of the wood removed, in accordance 
with the price fixed by the auction record. If the amount and quality of this wood can- 
not be regularly proven, its value will be fixed officially by the conservator. The re- 
moval of the wood before the approval of the scale report by the conservator will 
besides involve the application of Art. 388 of the Penal Code. 

Art. 34- — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special sales clauses, the removal must 
be completed within a period of one year counting from April 15 following the sale. 

Part V. — Price of Sale.' — Cost of Auction. — Registry and Stamp Rights. — 

Art. 35. — The purchasers of felhng areas of Federal wood will pay at the Federal 
collector's depositories: (a) Within a term fixed by the special clauses, which cannot 
exceed six months, the main price of the sale regulated by the scale report duly ap- 
proved; (6) within a period of 10 days, 1 franc, 60 per cent of the amount of the sale 
so far as the fixed stamp rights and registry of the certifica t es relating to the sale as for 



448 



APPENDIX 



all other costs, and the proportional rights of registry and of surety on the amount of the 
sale increased by the tax of 1 franc, 60 per cent. (Decision of the Minister of Finance, 
April 7, 1883.) 

The fixed right of the surety certificate will be paid besides within the same period 
after the first scaling. The terms will run from the date of the approval by the conserva- 
tor of the scale report. 

Art. 36. — The purchasers of felling areas of communal and public institution wood 
will pay within the terms indicated in the foregoing article, (a) At the communal col- 
lector's depository or that of the public institution owner, the principal price regulated 
by the scale report duly approved. (6) At the registry collector's depository, the fixed 
stamp rights and for the registry of the deeds relating to the sale and for the surety 
certificate, the proportional rights of registry and surety on the total sale, and, if there 
are any, also the fixed stamp rights and registry of the deeds before or after the sale, 
that is to say, for the marking standards report and survey notes. 

Art. 87 . — The total of the charges of all kinds, for work or materials to be furnished 
by the purchaser, and whose valuation in money is given in the advertisement, will be 
deducted as a whole from the total of the sale on the scale report; the amount remaining 
will form the chief price of the sale. 

In case of partial scahng this deduction will be made from the first scale report. 

June 18, 1903. 

APPENDIX H 
FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE (1870-1912) 

(a) FORESTRY PROPER, ETC. 



Title 

Etude sur la production du chSne et son emploi en France 
Etude sur la carbonisation des bois (systeme Dromart) 
Etude sur les forets du Risoux 
Cri d'alarme sur les hais d'industrie, de Chauffage et le char- 

bon de terre 
Mise en Valeur des sols pauvres au moyen de la culture de 

Resineux 
Le Mont — Boron 
Les bois employes dans I'industrie 
De I'influence des forets sur le climat 
Etudes sur I'amenagement des forfits 
Service forestier de I'Algerie (Rapport) 
Notice sur les bois de la Nouvelle-Caledonie 
Notes sur le role economique des associations pastorales 

(Pyrenees) 
Histoire du chene dans I'antiquite et dans la nature 
Histoire de la foret de Fontainebleau 
Petit manuel du garde partioulier des bois et forets 
La greffe a la portee des classes populaires 
Manuel de sylviculture 

Enquete sur les incendies dans les landes de Gascogne 
Des rapports entre les racines et les branches des arbres 
Ecorcement des bois par la chaleur 
Carbonisation des bois en vases clos 
Exposition collective des produits d'economie rurale et 

forestiere du royaume de Boh6me 
Observations sonimaires sur le progres rural (region des 

Pyrenees) 
Experiences forestieres 1871-1874 
La sylviculture au Conseil g^'l d'Auxerre (Reboisement) 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Bagneris 


Paris 


1870 


Desnoyers Roux 


Fontainebleau 


1870 


Gurnaud 


Besangon 


1870 


Boutroux 


Gien 


1870 


Fillon 


Paris 


1870 


Guiot 


Nice 


1871 


Noerdlinger 


Paris 


1872 


Rousseau 


Carcassonne 


1872 


Tassy 


Paris 


1872 


Tassy 


Paris 


1872 


Sebert 


Paris 


1872 


Calvert 


Tarbes 


1872 


Coutace 


Paris 


1873 


Domet 


Paris 


1873 


Dommanget 


Paris 


1873 


Fandrin 


Marseille 


1873 


Bagneris 


Nancy 


1873 


Fare 


Paris 


1873 


Regimbeau 


Nimes 


1873 


du Roscoat 


Paris 


1873 


Vincent 


Paris 


1873 


de Dombrowski 


Prague 


1873 


Calvet 


Pau 


1873 


Le Chauff 


Moulins 


1874 


de Kirwan 


Auxerre 


1874 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



449 



Title 
Trait6 sur lea arbres resineux 

L'amenagement des forets (2*1 Edit.) 
Calepin d'amenag* de la foret donian'^ des Reelas 
Les forets a I'Exposition de Vienna 1873 
Notice f orestiere sur les landes de Gascogne 

Notes sur les associations pastorales dans les Pyrenees 

Les bois indigenes et etrangers 

Dictionnaire des forets (2^ tirage) 

Le reboisement et le regazonnement des Alpes (2d Edit.) 

Des arbres resineux et de leur utilite particuliere pour le 

boisement des frickes 
L' Administration des forets au concours regional de Troyes 

Les forets et les paturages du Comte de Nice 

Les forets du Charollais sous les dues de Bourgogne 

Souvenir d'une excursion forestiere dans I'inspection de Loris 

Nouvelle methode d'exploitation des futaies 

Le deboisement et le reboisement dans les Alpes (Mon- 

tagne d'Aurouse) 
Foret domaniale de Chinon, Repeuplements (de 1846-1875) 
Considerations et recherches sur I'elagage des essences 

forestieres 
Memoire sur la carbonisation des bois en foret 
Examen des noveaux appareils pour I'ecorcement des bois 

sous Taction de la chaleur 
De Teoorcage du chene-les ecorces h tan 
Les torrents des Alpes et le paturage (2^ Edit.) 
Herbier des fermes plants provenants de la pepinicre d'Arpa- 

jon (Caubal) 
Le reboisement dans I'Ardeche 
Rapport sur Tecor^age a la vapeur presente au Congres des 

tanneurs 
Les forets communales en 1877 
De I'assechement du sol par les essences forestieres 
Du deboisement des campagnes dans les rapports avec dis- 

parition des oiseaux utiles a I'agriculture 
Considerations generales sur Tamenag* des bois 
Calepin d'amenag'' de la foret communale Urbacke 
Compte de la gruerie des baillages d'Autun et de Mont Cenis 

pour I'annee 1419 
Determination du revenu annuel des forets taillis sous 

futaie 
Manuel de I'economie alpestre (trad, de I'allemand) 
Melanges forestiers (Expos, universelle de 1878) 
La foret 

Manuel de sylviculture (2^ Edit.) 
Note sur deux procedes pour activer le developpement des 

racines laterales du chene en pepiniere 
Rapport sur le reboisement des terrains en pente de I'arron- 

dissement de Chaumont 
Outils pour semis et plantations 
Notice sur I'elagage des arbres 
Ecimage des fennes peupliers de la valle I'Ourcq 
Notice sur le debit et les emplois du chene romre et du chene 

pedoneule 
Notice sur les divers emplois du hetre 

Notice sur le debit et les emplois du sapin de I'epicea et du 

meleze 
Notice sur le debit et les emplois des principales essences de 

PinB 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Bouguinat 


Chalons 


1874 




S. Saone 




Puton 


Paris 


1874 


Crouvizier 


Epinal 


1874 


Mathieu 


Paris 


1874 


Croizette- 


Clermont 


1874 


Desnoyers 






Calvet 


Paris 


1874 


Dupont 


Paris 


1875 


Rousset 


Paris 


1875 


Mathieu 


Paris 


1875 


Renault 


Mirecourt 


1875 


Croizette- 


Troyes 


1875 


Desnoyers 






Guiot 


Paris 


1875 


Picard 


Autun 


1876 


Le Grix 


Paris 


1876 


Vaulot 


Langres 


1876 


Cardot 


Paris 


1876 


Thomas 


Paris 


1876 


Martimet 


Paris 


1876 


Dromart 


Paris 


1876 


Tissot 


Paris 


1876 


Perrault 


Paris 


1876 


Marchand 


Paris 


1876 


Blackere 


Arpajon 


1877 


Blackere 


Paris 


1877 


Negociants 


Tours 


1877 


tanneurs 






Jacquot 


Pithiviers 


1877 


Burger 


Paris 


1877 


Burger 


Paris 


1877 


Houba 


Arlon 


1877 


Crouvizier 


Epinal 


1877 


Picard 


Autun 


1877 



Puton 



Paris 



1877 



Schatzmann 


Lausanne 


1877 


Divers 


Paris 


1878 


Muller 


Paris 


1878 


Bagneris 


Nancy 


1878 


Leveret 


Paris 


1878 


Arbeltier de 


Chaumont 


1878 


les Boullage 






Proure 


Dieppe 


1878 


Martinet 


Paris 


1878 


Burger 


Meaun 


1878 


Gallat et Cast 


Paris 


1878 


Croizette- 


Paris 


1878 


Desnoyers 






Gallot 


Paris 


1878 


Croizette- 


Paris 


1878 


Desnoyers 







450 



APPENDIX 



Title 
Notice sur les etais de mines en France 
Notice sur I'industrie du Sabotage dans le depart'' de la 

Lozere 
Notice sur le debit des bois de fen, lux mode vente et les 

precedes de carbonisation employes en France 
Recherces experimentales sur les ecorces a tan du chfine 

Yeuse 
Notice sur I'industrie des ecorces a tan 
Notice sur I'emploi du bois dans la fabrication de la pate k 

papier 
Notice sur le gemmage du Pin maritime 

Notice sur le controle et les comptabilite relatif k les gestion 

des forets 
Meterologie comparee agricole et forestiere 
Notice sur les dunes de la Coubre 

Cours d'amenagement des forets 

Du partage des affectations en un meme nombre de divi- 
sions dans les amenagements de futaie 

Cahier d'amenag*. — Methode par contenance expose sur 
la foret des Eperons 

Un peril d'eau I'Algerie — le deboisement 

Catalogue des produits et exploitations foresf®^ de la 
Hongrie (Exposition universelle de 1878) 

Catalogue des collections exposees par le service des forets 
de I'Algerie a I'Exposition de 1878 

Catalogue des collections exposees par TAdministration 
des forets 

Notice sur le debit et les emplois du chataignier des erables, 
du frene, etc. 

Le paturage sur les terrains gazonnes et boises 

L'art forestier frangais a I'Exposition de 1878 

L'art forestier a I'Exposition de 1878 

La culture des osiers 

Essai pratique du reboisement des montagnes 

Le chene-liege en Algerie 

Amenagem* des forets-Estimation 

Calepin d'amenag* de la foret doman'^ de Montagne 

Statistique forestiere (texte et atlas) 

Bibliographic de I'Exposition forestiere de 1878 
Determination du revenu des futaies jardinees 
Amenagement des forets — Estimation en fonds et Superficie 
Restauration des forets et paturages du sud de la province 

d'Algerie 
Traite sur les differents Cubages des bois en grume 
Proces-verbal d'amenag* de la foret doman'^ de Darney — 

Martinvelle 
Rapport sur le materiel et les procedes des industries agri- 

cules et forest ieres 
Une exposition forestiere improvisee en Auvergne 
Restauration des forets et des p&turages du sud de I'Algerie 
Vingt annees d'economie alpestre Suisse 
Traite pratique de la culture des Pins a grandes dimen- 
sions (3<1 Edit.) 
Le traitement des bois en France a I'usage des particuliers 
Traite de sylviculture pratique en Sologne 
Conference sur le reboisem* des terrains Vagues 
Drainage des forets 

Essai des engrais chimiques sur la vegetation forestiere 
Culture du chene-lifige — (Rapport) 



Author 
Thelu 
Grosjean 

Larzilliere 

Rousset 



Place 
Paris 
Paris 

Paris 

Paris 



Date 

1878 
1878 

1878 

1878 



de Kirwan 


Paris 


1878 


Jolivet 


Paris 


1878 


Croizette- 


Paris 


1878 


Desnoyers 






Boppe 


Paris 


1878 


Mathieu 


Nancy 


1878 


Vasselot de 


PariB 


1878 


Regne 






Broilliard 


Nancy 


1878 


de Schwartz 


Paris 


1878 


Gurnaud 


Paris 


1878 


de Metz-Noblat 


Paris 


1878 


Guiot 


Paris 


1878 


Exposit. univer- 


Alger 


1878 


selle 






Exposit. univer- 


Paris 


1878 


selle 






Bruant, 


Paris 


1878 


Lazillidre 






Rousset 


Nice 


1878 


de Kirwan 


Brusselles 


1879 


Bouquet de 


Paris 


1879 


la Grye 






Coaz 


Berne 


1879 


Tanoriou 


Beaune 


1879 


Zamey 


Alger 


1S79 


Fallotte 


Carcassonne 


1879 


Colnenne 


Epinal 


1879 


AdminisO^ des 


Paris 


1879 


forets 






de Kirwan 


St. Quentin 


1879 


Puton 


Paris 


1879 


Tallotte 


Carcassonne 


1879 


Reynard 


Alger 


1880 


Zeniee 


Angers 


188(' 


Bocquentin 


Mirceant 


18SC 


Durand-Claye 


Paris 


1880 



de Kirwan 


Bruxelles 


1880 


Reynard 


Alger 


1880 


Schwartzmann 


Lausanne 


1880 


Delamarre 


Paris 


1881 


Broilliard 


Nancy 


1881 


Girard 


Romorantin 


1881 


Muel 


Epinal 


1881 


Houba 


Besangon 


1881 


Muel 


Epinal 


1881 


Chasin 


Paris 


1881 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



451 



Title 

De I'influence des forets sur le climat et I'origine des sources 

Projet d'amenag* des bois de Rochefort 

Foret commu'6 de St. Martin Lautasque. — Projet de reglemt 

d'exploitation 
Calepin d'amenag'' de la foret Commul^ de Gemaingoutte 
A travers la Grande — Bretagne 

L'Exposition forestiere au concours regional d'Amiens 
Une exposition forestiere en Tourraine 
Calepin d'amenag'' de la foret du Valse Senones 
Etude sur I'economie pastorale des H'^^-Alpes 
Culture et exploitation des Arbres 
Essais de reboist^ dans la Montagne Noire 

Note sur le sartage dans Tarrondt de Rocroi 

Traite pratique du boisement et reboisement des mon- 

tagnes, landes, etc. 
Essai sur les repeuplements artificiels et la restauration des 

vides et clairieres des forets 
Rapport sur me nouveau procede de culture du Chene-liege 
Petit manuel forestier 

Manuel d'economie forestiere (Notions d'amenagement) 
De I'influence des forets sur les pluies, I'alimentation des 

sources 
Memoire sur I'amenag* de la Commune de Syam 
Calepin d'amenag' de la foret Commu'^ de Fraize 
Etude sur les causes du deboisement en Algerie et les moyens 

d'y remedier 
L'impot foncier des forets — determination du revenu 

imposable 
Note sur I'estimation des saillis en cruissance 
Vade-mecum du forestier 
Des plantations qui bordent les Loudes 
Expose des faits general relatifs a la production forestiere 

sous le climat de la France 
Notions de sylviculture enseignees k I'Ecole normale desVosges 
Cours elementaire de la culture des bois (6^ Ed.) 

Creation de peuplements artificiels et boisement des ter- 
rains nus 

Reboisement et amenagement des eaux dans I'Aude 

L'art de planter (Arond. de I'allemand) 

Etude sur les vices du bois 

La question des reboisements et le role des Eucalyptus en 
Algerie 

Calepin d'amenag* de la foret de Raon I'Etape 

Catalogue des collections exposees a I'Exposito^ internat'^ 
d'Amsterdam en 1883. Service des forets de I'Algerie 

Les forSts 

Bois et Forets 

Philosophie sur la sylviculture 

Sur la regeneration naturelle des futaies 

Etude sur I'experimentation forestiere en Allemagne et en 
Autriche 

Manuel du cultivateur de Pins en Sologne 

Achat, analyse et preparation des graines resineuses em- 
ployees par I'Administration des forets 

Les repeupl's artificiels dans les forets d'Arques et d'Eaux 

Considerations sur la production et le traitement des plantes 
sur la creation et I'entretien des forets 

Recherches experimentales sur la dessiccation artificielle 
des bois 

Notes sur les boisements artificiels des Vosges. Acclima- 
tation du chene rouge d'Amerique 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Maistre 


Montpellier 


1881 


Houba 


Liege 


1881 


Burel 


Nice 


1881 


Crouvizier 


Epinal 


1881 


Boppe 


Nancy 


1881 


Vion 


Amiens 


1881 


Martines 


Paris 


1881 


Crouvizier 


Epinal 


1881 


Briot 


Paris 


1881 


Rousset 


Valence 


1882 


Cormouls- 


Mazamet 


1882 


Hautes 






Cornebois 


Paris 


1882 


Levavasseur 


Talaise 


1882 



Noel 



Puton 



Paris 



Chasin 


Paris 


Vaulot 


Langres 


Galmiche 


Grenoble 


Dicky 


Itrasbourg 


Gurnaud 


BesanQon 


Gurnaud 


Epinal 


Chitier 


Miliana 



Paris 



Devarenne 


Andelot 


Caquet 


Paris 


Houba 


Berne 


Boppe 


Nancy 


Muel 


Nancy 


Lorentz et 


Paris 


Parade 




Boppe 


Nancy 


Cautegril 


Nancy 


de Manteuffel 


Paris 


Marchal 


Paris 


Naudin 


Paris 


Crouvizier 


Epinal 


Crouvizier 


Alger 


Lesbazeilles 


Paris 


Robinson 


Paris 


Guinier 


Toulouse 


Guinier 


Paris 


Rensset et 


Paris 


Bartet 




Cannon 


Orleans 


Thil. 


Paris 


Prouve 


Paris 


Parisel 


Bruxelles 


Marcus 


Metz 


Gazin 


Besangon 



452 



APPENDIX 



Title Author Place Date 

De ramenagement des futaies Brenot Arlon 1884 

La sylviculture frangaise Gurnaud Paris 1884 

Calepin d'amenag' de la foret de Danipaire Crouvizier Epinal 1884 

Proces-verbal d'amenag* de la foret domaniale de Haye Bagneris Nancy 1884 

Notes sur la statistique forestiere de I'ouest de la France Noel Paris 1884 

Catalogue raisonne des collections exposees au Concours Direction des Dole 1884 

regional de Dole 1884 . forets 

Questions alpestres Briot Paris 1884 

Les droits de bandite dans le Comte de Nice Guiot Nice 1884 

Vade mecum forestier Caquet Paris 1885 

Guide du forestier — Elements de sylviculture (8° Ed.) Bouquet de la Paris 1885 

Grye 

Le furetage en Chalais Puton Nancy 1885 

Notice sur la pepiniere de Royat Bertrand Moulins 1885 

Notice sur les reboisements du Puy-de-D6me Bertrand Moulins 1885 

Programme general du reboisement du gouvern* general de Tirman et Alger 1885 

I'Algerie Mathieu 

Du reboisement des proprietes particulieres Moureton Paris 1885 

Etude sur le resinage Blanc Paris 1885 

La methode fran^aise et la question forestiere Gurnaud Besancon 1885 

Etude sur les taillis composes Burel Paris 1885 

La methode du controle de Gurnaud Grandjean . Paris 1885 

3°, Memoire sur I'amenag* des bois de la commune de Gurnaud Besangon 1885 

Syam 

Notice sur la carte forestiere de la region de Nancy Henry Nancy 1885 

Statistique forestiere du dep'' de I'Allier de Guiny Moulins 1885 

Considerations generales sur les forets I'Algerie de Guiny Alger 1885 

Concours regional de Nancy — Catalogue de I'Exposition Direction des Nancy 1885 

forestiere forets 

Convention Internationale de reboisement Burger Meaux 1885 

A propos des defrichements et inondations Pissot Paris 1885 

Foret domaniale de Haye — Proces-verbal de revision de Bartet Nancy 1885-86 

la possibilite au debut de 1885 

Les forets de la France Depelchin Tours 1886 

Les forets lorraines jusqu» en 1789 Guyot Nancy 1886 

La sylviculture a I'Ecole primaire Caquet Nevers 1886 

Etude sur les plantations Bert Alger 1886 

Les reboisements par I'acacia Caquet Nevers 1886 

La restauration des montagnes Benardeau Paris 1886 

Guide pratique du rebois* a I'usage des particuliers Rousseau Carcassonne 1886 

Reboisements et repeuplements de Kirwan Bruxelles 1886 

Situation au 31 decembre 1886 des trav* de reboisement Service du Barcelonnette 1886 

des environs de Barcelonnette reboisement 

Etudes calorimetriques sur la combustion de bois Petit 

Notice sur I'emploi de la sciure de bois et I'usage de la Jolivet 

tourbe comme litere dans les ecuries 

La sylviculture franfaise et la methode de Controle (Re- Gurnaud Besangon 1886 

ponse a M. Grandjean) 

Les plans d'exploitation de courte duree Gurnaud Besangon 1886 

Missions forestieres en Grande Bretagne, Autriche et Baviere Boppe et Reuss Paris 1886 

Les produits forestiers a I'Exposition de Budapest 1885 Boppe Paris 1886 

L'Exposition internat'^ de 1884 4 Edinbourg (Forets) Reuss Paris 1886 

Estimations concernant la propriete forestiere Puton Paris 1886 

Les forets de I'Abbaye de Citeaux Picard Autun 1887 

Les pares forestiers Caquet Nevers 1887 

Notes sur les orangeries et les irrigations de Blida Joly Paris 1887 

La foret a travers le monde Caquet Nevers 1887 

Extraits du rapport sur le reboisement de la cote de Maize- Munich et Nancy 1887 

ville pres Nancy Bremeau 

Le proprietaire planteur. Manuel pratique des reboise- Cannon Orleans 1887 

ments 

Du boisement des sols pauvres Pruvost Troyes 1887 

Cours de Technologic forestiere (Nouv. Edit.) Boppe Paris 1887 



Lyon 1886 

Vitry le Francois 1886 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



453 



Title 
Resistance des bois ^ la flexion et k la complexion 
Des formations du bois rouge et du bois gras dans le sapin 

et I'epicea 
Les Landes de Gascogne 
L'art forestier et le controle 
Economie forestiere — Principes generaux — le jardinage — 

Estimation 
Variations et equilibre de I'accroiss'' en foret 
De I'exploitabilite de la possibilite et de leurs differents 

modes 
L'amenagement des forets (V. Edit.) 
Les forets de la Meuse et leurs produits 
A travers la Tunisie 

Le Tarif des douanes et les produits forestiers 
Exposition internat'^ de Toulouse (Forets catalogue) 

La culture forestiere dans la region du Chablais 

Etat des forets de la France — Travaux a faire — Mesures 

a prendre 
Le Sapin des Vosges — Etude d'estimation 
Statistique forestiere de Meurthe-et-Moselle 
Etude sur la constitution normale des futais jardinees 
Recherches sur la production ligneuse pendant la phase des 

coupes de regeneration St. Memoire 
De I'influence des eclaircies sur I'accroissement diametral 

des aspins 
La restauration des montagnes 
Destruction de la larve du hanneton par le pal et la Ceuzine 

Des emplois chimiques du bois dans les arts et I'industrie 
L'Industrie de la carbonisation des bois en France et la 

denaturation des alcools 
Traite d'economie forestiere 
La dune littorale 
Cours d'amenagement professe S, I'Ecole forestiere (1885- 

1886) 2 cahiers 
Les forets de rarrondt d'Embrun 
La sylviculture dans les Vosges 
Buffon et la foret communale de Montbard 
Les Alpes-Maritimes — Considerations au point de vue 

forestier pastoral et agricole 
Concours regional d'Autun — Esposit°° forestiere 
De la situation des forets d'essences melangees dans d'le de 

la Reunion 
Influence des eclaircies (p'' st 2^ Memoires) 
Traite de sylviculture 

Considerations diverses a propos de taillis 
Premiere etude sur les peuplements reguliers Sapin 
Recherches s\ir le traitement des sapinieres vosgiennes 
Etude sur la place de production N** 2 foret domaniale de 

Haye (St. Memoire) 
Causerie sur les bois de la Guyane 
Diagrammes et calculs d'accroissement 
Influence de la foret et la consistance des peuplements 
Influence du deboisem* au point de vue de Taction torren- 

tielle dans la H^'^-Ariege 
Economic resumee de la foret 
Proces-verbal de revision de la possibilite et de I'amenag* 

St. Seire — St. Jean — Fontaine p''^ periode 1887 
Atlas forestier de la France par departements 

Statistique forestiere du depart'' du Cautal 
Les forets de I'Algerie 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Sergent 


Paris 


1887 


Mer 


Paris 


1887 


Chambreleut 


Paris 


1887 


Gurnaud 


Besan^on 


1887 


Vaulot 


Paris 


1887 


Gurnaud 


Paris 


1887 


de Ivirwan 


Bruxelles 


1887 


Tassy 


Paris 


1887 


Larzilliere 


St. Mihiel 


1887 


Baraban 


Paris 


1887 


Puton 


Nancy 


1887 


Ministere de 


Foixe 


1887 


I'agriculture 






Gazin 


Paris 


1887 


Tassy 


Paris 


1887 


Puton 


Epinal 


1887 


Huffel 


Nancy 


1887-88 


Burel 


Paris 


1888 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1888 



Mer 



Paris 



1888 



de Courson 


Paris 


1888 


Croisette- 


Paris 


1888 


Desnoyers 






Petit 


Lyon 


1888 


Petit 


Lyon 


1888 


Puton 


Paris 


1888 


Grandjean 


Poitiers 


1888 


Reuss 


Nancy 


1888 


Gouget 


Paris 


1888 


Claudot 


Epinal 


1888 


Perdrizet 


Dijon 


1888 


Boye 


Lille 


1888 


Ado° des forets 


Autun 


1888 


Goizet 


St. Denis 


1888 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1888-89 


Boppe 


Paris 


1889 


Suckaux 


Paris 


1889 


Bartet 


Paris 


1889 


Mer 


Paris 


1889 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1889 


Dupre 


Melun 


1889 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1889 


Ebermayer 


Nancy 


1889 


Vautrin 


Foixe 


1889 


Vaulat 


Paris 


1889 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1889 


Benardeau et 


Paris 


1889 


Cuny 






Gebhart 


Aurillae 


1889 


Combee 


Alger 


1889 



454 



APPENDIX 



Title 

Statistique des forets de la province d'Oran (Algerie) 

Les forfits du depart* de I'Yonne 

Statistique foiestieie du depart* du Loiret 

Notice sur les forets de la Tunisia 

Le Var — Considerations au point de vue forestier 

Quelques considerations sur les forets vosgiennes 

Mission forestiSre en Roumanie 

Exposition universelle — Algerie, — • Catalogue des collec- 
tions de bois exposees 

Le Pavilion forestier au Trocadero. Exposition universelle 
de 1889 

L'inventairc des massifs forestiers (trad* de I'alleniand) 

Traite forestier pratique 

L'art de planter avcc succ^s et economic 

Les boisements productifs en toute situation 

Guide pratique du reboisement 

Moyen d'activer I'allongement des jeunes sapins 

Trente jours S, la Reunion. — Notes et impressions foresti^res 

Guide theorique et prati<iue de cubage des bois 

Compte Rendu des observations meteorologiques concern- 
ant les onze annees 1878-1888 

Les dunes de Belgique 

Les dunes mourantes d'Ain Sebue (Algerie) 

Mise en valeur des terres incultes du massif central de la 
France 

La methode du controle h I'Exposition de 1889 

Note sur une nouvelle methode forestiSre dite du controle 
de Gurnaud 

L'amenag* des forets communales et du cantonnement 
forestier de Montbard 

Notice forestiere sur le depart* de I'Aude 

Le bois de Saone et Loire 

Les forfits de la Roumanie 

Congres international forestier de Vienna 

Les Forets 

Notice sur les plantations de bois resineux dans la forfet de 
Culonusay (Jura) 

De I'influence exercee par I'epoque de I'abatage sur la pro- 
duction et le developpement des rejets de souches 

Exposition universelle de 1889 — Materiel et precedes des 
exploitations rurales & forestieres 

Notice historique sur la forfit Commun'® d'Epinal 

Une excursion forestiere dans I'Est 

Les hauts plateaux oranais 

Les forets et le commerce des bois en France 

Un reboisement dans les Indes anglaises 

Les forets du Japon 

Forestiers et BClcherons 

A travers le Japon 

Les forets et le commerce des bois en France 

Traite d'econoniie forestiere. Amenagment 

Decadence de la propriete boisee et souffrances des popula- 
tions forestieres 

Sur les causes de variation de la densite des bois 

Note sur I'accroissement et le rendement en matiere et en ar- 
gent d'une parcelle peuplee de bois resineux 

Recherches sur le convert des arbres de tallies sous futaie 

Traitement des bois tallies 

Sur quelques experiences effectuees k la pepiniere des 

Bellefontaines 
De I'influence des sols boises sur les climats 
Notice sur les inondations de 1888 k 1891 et sur le deboise- 

ment dans le Roussillon 



Author 
Mathieu 
Picard 
Domet 
Lefebore 
Boye 
Gazin 
Hufifel 
Goizet 

de Kirwan 

Fankanser 

Gurnaud 

Bouquinat 

Fillon 

Rousseau 

Mer 

Girod-GenSt 

Frockst 

Bartet 

Baraban 

Riston 

Gebhart 

Gurnaud 
de Blonay 

Jerdrizet 



Place 
Alger 
Auxerre 
Orleans 
Tunis 
Lille 
Epinal 
Nancy 
Alger 

Bruxelles 

Neufchatel 

Paris 

Laignes 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Alger 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 
Paris 

Paris 
Lausanne 

Troyes 



Date 

1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 

1889 

1889 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 

1890 
1890 
1800 

1890 
1890 

1890 



Rousseau 


Carcassonne 


1890 


Gaudet 


Paris 


1890 


Huffel 


Paris 


1890 


Boppe 


Paris 


1890 


de Venel 


Paris 


1891 


Gurnaud 


Paris 


1891 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1891 


Divers 


Paris 


1891 


Claudot 


Epinal 


1891 


Cannon 


Paris 


1891 


Mathieu 


Alger 


1891 


Melard 


Paris 


1891 


Ussele 


Paris 


1891 


de Kirwan 


Bruxelles 


1891 


Heiner 


Chatelles 


1891 


Ussete 


Paris 


1891 


Melard 


Paris 


1891 


Puton 


Paris 


1891 


Boneard 


Paris 


1891 


Mer 


Paris 


1892 


Mongenst 


Grenoble 


1892 


Bartet 


Paris 


1892 


Bertrand 


Clermont- 
Ferrand 


1892 


Bartet 


Nancy 


1892 


Loze 


Toulouse 


1892 


de Boixo 


Perpignay 


1892 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



455 



Title 
Influence des forgts sur la production de la plaine 
Histoire de la foret d'Orltans 
Guide du foreatier (9^ Edit.) 

La Sapinidre ideale 

Les forgts de chene vert 

Etude sur la place de production N" 1. (Foret de Cham-. 

penoux) 
Breviaire du ligueur 
Etude sur la sylviculture 
Notes sur la duree des traverses en bois (Comp'^ des chem. 

de fer. P. L. M.) 
Le chene-lifege, sa culture, son exploitation 
Plantations rcsineuses de la Champagne 
Nature et utilisation des produits forestiers des Pyrenees-Or- 

ientalcs 
Les arbres et les peuplenients forestiers 
La foret et la disette du fourrage 
Du calcul de la possibilite dans les futaies jardinees 
Une question de niethode 

La question forestiere algerienne devant le Senat 
Le Haut-Perehe et des forets domaniales 
Note sur les forets et le rebois* dans les Pyrenees-Orien^^s 
Le chene liege, Sa culture, Son exploitation 
3^ Menioire sur I'influence des eclaircies 
Le traitement des bois en France 
Deboisement et rebois'' dans les Basses-Pyrenees 
Etude eeonomique sur le rebois* des montagnes 
Semer et planter (2^ Edit.) 

Les forets & le reboiseni'' dans les Pyrenees-Orient'®^ 
L'extinction des torrents en France par le reboise- 

ment 
La methode du controle, son application k une partie de la 

foret de Champenoux (p"" p'®) 
Estimations et exploitabilitcs foresti^res 
Insuffisance de la production du chene en France 
Les forets des Pyrenees 

Statistique des forets soumises au regime forestier 
Quelques conseils aux sylviculteurs du Chablais 
Petit manuel du proprictaire sylviculteur 
Chenes-lieges — Notice sur les forets de I'Algerie 
Les forets de C6dre 

Les forSts et le rebois* dans les Pyrenees-Orient'®^ 
Union landaise des proprietaires et fabricants de produits 

resineux 
Exposition internat'® de Chicago — Commissariat Special de 

I'Agriculture 
L'art d'etre proprietaire de bois 
Culture intensive des forets 

Recherches sur la production ligneuse pendant la phase des 
coupes de regeneration (Foret domaniale de Haye) 
(place d'expces n" 1) 

Du prix du bois resineux dans le Doules 

Influence des forets sur le climat 

Le double du Perigord 

L'Algcrie et la commission senatoriale 

De la depreciation des bois de feu 

Le commerce des bois en Europe 

Traite des plantations d'alignement et d'ornement 

Traitement de I'epicea dans les Alpes 

Les taillis sous futaie des Vosges 



Author 


Place 


Jeannel 


Nice 


Domet 


Orleans 


Bouquet 


Paris 


de la Grye 




Schaeffer 


Besancon 


de Larminat 


Troyes 


Claudot 


Paris 



Trolard Alger 

de I'Estrange Chateaumont 

Conard Paris 



Lamey 

de Faillasson 

Calas 

Huffel 

Grandeau 

de Liocourt 

Biol ley 

Trolard 

de Tregoniain 

de Boixo 

Lamez 

Claudot 

Broilliard 

Benevent 

Demontzey 

Cannon 

de Boixo 

Demontzey 

Claudot 



Paris 

Seus 
Perpignan 

Nancy 

Paris 

Nancy 

Besangon 

Alger 

Nancy 

Perpignan 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Pau 

Lyon 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Besangon 



Date 

1892 
1892 
1893 

1893 
1893 
1893 

1893 
1893 
1893 

1893 
1893 
1893 

1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 

1894 



Bizot de Jontenz 


Gray 


1894 


Melard 


Bruxelles 


1894 


de Gorsse 


Paris 


1894 


de Gorsse 


Paris 


1894 


Schaeffer 


Annecy 


1894 


Sarce 


Le Mans 


1894 


Charlemagne 


Alger 


1894 


Level 


Alger 


1894 


de Boixo 


Paris 


1894 


Puton 


Mont de- 
Marsay 


1894 


Leze, Tetet 


Paris 


1894 


Ringelmann 






de Kirwan 


Bruxelles 


1895 


Scarsez de 


Bruxelles 


1895 


Locqueneuille 






Claudot 


Paris 


1895 


Brenot 


Besangon 


1895 


Huffel 


Besangon 


1895 


Gurnaud 


Besangon 


1895 


Mathieu 


Paris 


1895 


Claudot 


Poitiers 


1895 


Matkey 


Poitiers 


1895 


Charguerand 


Paris 


1896 


Guinier 


St. Jean de 
Maurienne 


1896 


Watier 


Paris 


1896 



456 



APPENDIX 



Title 
Rapport de la Commission chargee de faire des experiences 

sur la resistance des bois resineux 
Exploitation technique des forets 
Exploitation commerciale des levis 
Influence des forets sur les chutes de grele 
Influence des forets sur I'humidite du sol 
Les retenues d'eau et le reboisement dans le bassin de la 

Durance 
Les arbres geants du Portugal 
Projet d'amenagement et de mise en valeur des forets de 

Chenes-liege 
Notice sommaire sur les forets de gastes S*^ Eulalie niimi- 

zan H. 
La foret de la Grande Chartreuse 
Notes sur le developpement et la gestion des forets Com- 

munales dans le depart* du Card 1800-1895 
Statistique forestiere de I'arrond'' de Pontarlier 
Le foret des Ardennes 

Description forestiere du royaume de Prusse 
L'evolution forestidre dans le Canton de Neufchatel (Suisse) 

Description economique et commerciale des forits de I'Etat 

hongrois (2'' Edit.) 
Etudes sur I'economie alpestre 
Etude d'archeologie forestiere 
Du reboisement et de la fertilisation des forets 
Contre les incendies des forets en Algerie 
De I'elagage des arbres forestiers 
Les merrains et la fabrication des tourmeaux 
Influence des forets sur les eaux souterraines 
Les Landes et les dunes de Gascogne 
Etudes sur la cote et les dunes du Medoc 
Methode nouvelle d'exploitation forestiere 
Sapinifires 

Etudes sur les forets resineuses de la Champagne 
Etat des forets resineuses du Poups 
Les forets du Canada 
Forets, chasse et peche (Exposit. de Bruxelles) 

Forets, chasse et peche — Exposit. intern'^ de Bruxelles 

Notes pour la vente et I'achat des forets 

L'art de greffer 

La surveillance des forets (10^ Edit.) 

Les vegetaux producteurs de Caoutchouc k Madagascar 
Sur I'abatage des bois en Sologne 

Notice sur le quarrimetre 

Les forets et les eaux souterraines dans les regions des plaines 

Les vieux arbres de la Normandie 

Etude sur I'amenagement des bois de chene dans le canton 

de Geneve 
Etude sur les landes de Gascogne 
Etude sommaire des taillis sous futaie dans le bassin de la 

Saone 
La foret des brocheres a la ville d'Auxonne 
Des funestes effets du deboisement dans les Pyrenees 
Les meilleures plantes fourrageres alpestres 
Plantation et culture des sols contre les inondations 
Notes forestieres — Cubage, estimation, etc. 
Utilite de I'introduction du Sapin et de I'epicea dans les 

saillis mediocres du Jura 



Author 
Thiery et 

PebibcoUot 
Vanutbergke 
Vanutbergke 
Claudot 
de Kirwan 
Demontzey 

Gebhart 
Lafond 

Demorlaine 

Margin 
Rouis 



Place 
Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Nancy 

Paris 

Aix 

Blois 
Alger 

Paris 

Grenoble 
Avignon 



Cardot Besangon 

Meyrae Charleville 

Huffel Paris 

Service forestier Neuch&tel 

Suisse 
de Bedo 



Briot 

Weyd 

Thezard 

Marchand 

Crakay 

Mouillefert 

Ototzky 

Grandjean 

Buffaut 

de Blonay 

de Liscourt 

Lafond 

Brenot 

Melard 

Ministere de 

I'agriculture 
Leze, Tetet 

Ringelmann 
Galmiche 
Ch. Baltet 
Bouquet de la 

Grue 
Girod-Genet 
Croizette- 

Desnoyers 
Demorlaine 
Henry 
de Kerville 
Borel 

Dromart 
Mathey 

Picard 

Guenot 

Briot 

Vadas 

Devarenne 

Rumacher 



Budapest 

Paris 

Poitiers 

Compiegne 

Dijon 

Bruxelles 

Paris 

Nancy 

Paris 

Servigny 

Gray 

Gray 

Reims 

Besancon 

Paris 

Bruxelles 

Bruxelles 

Besangon 

Troyes 

Paris 

Alger 
Fontainebleau 

Compeigne 
Nancy 
Paris 
Geneve 

Charleville 
Besangon 

Dijon 

Paris 

Chambery 

Troyes 

Chaumont 

Besanfon 



Date 
1896 

1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 

1896 
1896 

1896 

1896 
1896 

1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 

1896 

1896 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 

1897 

1897 
1898 
1898 

1898 
1898 

1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 

1898 
1898 

1898 
1898 
1898 
1899 
1899 
1899 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



457 



Title 
Coupes d'amelioration coupes intermediaires dans les 

futaies et les taillis 
De I'utilite des reboisements dans le midi de I'Europe et en 

Algerie 
Influence de Tespacement des plantes sur la vegetation de 

quelques essence? resineuses 
Regeneration par plantation des coupes de futaie 
Les fordts a Madagascar 

Nouveau moyen de preserver les bois de la vermoulure 
Mise en valeur des sols pauvres par le reboisem* 
De la possibilite par contenance superficielle substituee k 

la possibilite par volume dans les forets traitees en futaie 
Les forets de I'Aube 

La question des forets en Afrique 
Societe moscovite d'economie forestiere 

Histoire de la societe forestiere nationale hongroise 



Rapport sur les bois du Canton de Geneve 

Le regime pastoral 

Congres international de sylviculture 

Forets, chasse, Peche (Exposit. de 1900) 

La prochaine disette des bois d'oeuvre dans I'univers 

Les arbres de la Suisse 

Du progres en Sylviculture et dans I'utilisation des pro- 

duits forestiers 
La defense des forets centre I'incendie (dunes et landes 

de Gascogne) 
La processionnaire du Pin 
Un reboisement ;i bon marche 
Influence desavantageuse produite sur I'avenir des peuple- 

ments principalement sur ceux de I'epicea 
De quelques essences exotiques interessantes pour les 

reboisements 
Les essences et les travaux de boisem* (Ariege et H'^-Gar- 

onne) 
Les essences et les travaux de boisem* (Ariege et H^^-Gar- 

onne) 
Etude sur les fractures des bois dans les essais de 

resistance 
Senilisation rapide des bois et des matieres fibreuses par 

I'electricite 
Genimage du Pin maritime (Landes et Gascogne) 
Gommes, resines d'origine exotique 
Observations de phenomenes consecutifs k la plantation 

de coniferes 
Fixation des dunes 

Fixation des dunes (Charente et Vendee) 
Notes sur les dunes de Gascogne 
Foret domaniale de Blois. Proces-verbal d'amenagement 

Insuffisance de la production des bois d'oeuvre dans le monde 

Notice sommaire sur la foret de Fontainebleau 

Les forets de I'Algerie 

Nomenclature des echantillons de bois de la Cochin chine du 

Tonkin a I'Exposition universelle de 1900 
Notice sommaire sur les forets domaniales du department 

des Vosges 
La production agricole et forestiere dans les colonies fran- 

Caises 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Guinier 


Annecy 


1899 


Maistre 


Clermont 


1899 


Jolyet 


Paris 


1899 


Irouve 


Paris 


1899 


Girod-Genet 


Alger 


1899 


Mer 


Paris 


1899 


Henry 


Nancy 


1899 


de Kirwan 


Bruxelles 


1899 


Arbeltier de la 


Troyes 


1899 


BouUage 






Wachi 


Tunis 


1899 


Ministere de 


Moscow 


1899 


I'agriculture 






Ministere hon- 


Budapest 


1899 


grois de I'agri- 






culture 






Borel 


Geneve 


1899 


Guyot 


Poitiers 


1899 


Teissier 


Paris 


1900 


de Kirwan 


Paris 


1900 


de Kirwan 


Paris 


1900 


Inspection fed 


- Berne 


1900 


erale 






Claudot 


Epinal 


1900 


Delassasseigne 


Paris 


1900 


Calas 


Paris 


1900 


Henry 


Paris 


1900 


Reuss 


Vienna 


1900 


Henry 


Nancy 


1900 


Watier 


Paris 


1900 


Banby 


Paris 


1900 


Chil 


Paris 


1900 


Montpellier 


Paris 


1900 


Violette 


Paris 


1900 


de Cordemoy 


Paris 


1900 


Servier 


Paris 


1900 


Demorlaine 


Paris 


1900 


Lafond 


Paris 


1900 


Bert 


Paris 


1900 


Croizette- 


Blois 


1900 


Desnoyers 






Melard 


Paris 


1900 


Reuss 


Paris 


1900 


Lefebre 


Alger 


1900 


Boude 


Alger 


1900 


Mongenot 


Paris 


1900 


Lecomte 


Paris 


1900 



458 



Title 
Description generale de la foret de Krasnostauskaia. 

uit du Russe) 
Les forets domaniales en Autriche 

Notice sur les forets de la Roumanie 

Les forets de la Russie (trad, du Russe) 

Le developpement de la sylviculture en Bosnie-Herze- 

govine 
Catalogue des objets exposes par la direction des forets 

de Russie a I'Exposition univer^"^ de 1900 
Catalogue special, Forets de la Hongrie a I'Exposition 

univerelle de 1900 
Congres international de Sylviculture. C. Rendu. 
Catalogue des collections exposees par I'administ"'' des 

eaux et forets (Exposition de 1900) 
Catalogue raisonne, section forestiere russe 
Les ameliorations pastorales dans I'Ariege, la Haute-Gar- 

onne 
Les fruiteres de la H^^ Garonne 
Des paturages de montagne 
Le paturage en foret 
Traite pratique de sylviculture 
Traite de Sylviculture (Gayer, traducteur) 
Traitement du Sapin 
Traitement des Sapinieres 
Introduction dans les cultures forestieres d'essences etrangeres 

a la region 
Essais de reboisement en Meurthe et Moselle 
Introduction des resineux dans les taillis 
Restauration des peuplements d'epiceas ayant souffert d'un 

etat trop serre 
Le domaine forestier colonial de la France sa decadence 
Le bois 

Le champignon des maisons en Lorraine 
Des divers moyens propres k preserver de I'attaque des 

insectes les ecorces et les bois 
Observations sur les arbres a caoutchouc dans le zone 

amazonienne 
L'Industrie des resines 
Le Liege 
Influence de I'eclaircie des cepees sur le rendement en 

matiere et argent dans le traitement des taillis 
Sur le role de la foret dans la circulation de I'eau k la sur- 
face des continents 
De I'influence des forets sur le regime des eaux 
Observations meteorologiques 1867-1899 

Calepin d'amenag* de la foret des Hospices de Nancy 

Du reglement des exploitations dans une petite sapiniere 

Excursion forestiere en Morvan 

La foret d'Oloron-S^^ Marie 

Les forets et le regime forestier en Provence 

Rapport sur la 3^ reunion de I'association Internationale des 

stations de recherches forestieres a Zurich 
Le defrichement et la culture des terrains en pente 
Quelques notions forestieres a I'usage des ecoles 
Petit manuel a I'usage des soci6tes scolaires pastorales, 

forestieres de Franche-Comte 
L'Idee forestiere sur le versant septentrional des Pyrenees 

Le Traitement des sapinieres base sur la notion d'espace- 
ment des tiges 



APPENDIX 










Author 


Place 


Date 


iskaia. (Trad- 


Jachnoff 


St. Petersbourg 


1900 




Ministers de 


Vienna 


1900 




I'agriculture 








Service des 


Bucharest 


1900 




forets 








Ministere de 


Paris 


1900 




I'agriculture 






Bosnie-Herze- 


Petraschek 


Vienna 


1900 



Ministere de Paris 

I'agriculture 
Gouvt. Kongrois Budapest 



Daubree 
Vaney 

Jachnoff 
Campardon 

Bruisson 

Cardot 

Matkey 

Boppe et Jolyet 

de Bocarme 

Huffel 

Mer 

Jolyet 

Claude 
Garzin 

Mer 

Girod-Genet 
Frochot 
Henry 
Mer 

Huber 



Paris 
Paris 

St. Petersbourg 
Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Besan5on 

Paris 

Bruges 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Besanjon 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 
Nancy 
Paris 

Paris 



Henry 



Nancy 



1900 

1900 

1900 
1900 

1900 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 

1901 
1901 
1901 

1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 

1901 



Rabate 


Paris 


1901 


Martignat 


Paris 


1901 


Mer 


Paris 


1901 



1901 



Guinier 


Besancon 


1901 


de Drouin et 


Paris 


1901 


de Bouville 






Bazaille 


Epinal 


1901 


Broilliard 


Besancon 


1901 


Roy 


Nevers 


1901 


Duchesne 


Oloron 


1901 


Allard 


Paris 


1901 


Huffel 


Paris 


1901 


Rousset 


Paris 


1901 


Rabutte 


Vouziers 


1902 


Cardot 


Besancon 


1902 


Fabre 


Bagneres de 
Bigorre 


1902 


Gazin 


Paris 


1902 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



459 



Title 

La regeneration naturelle des coupes de futaie 

La mise en valeur des terres communales incultes 

Amelioration a iiitroduire dans le traitement des taillis 

Le bois, le liSge 

Etude sur la penetrabilite des arbres forestiers par les 
projectiles des armes a feu 

La lutte contre le champignon des maisons 

Sechage rapide, imputrescibilite et inflammabilite des bois 

Influence de la couverture morte sur I'humidite du sol fores- 
tier 

Forets et navigabilite en Gascogne 

Les forets de plaines et les eaux souterraines (Experiences 
faites dans la foret de Moudon 1900-02) 

L'architecture forestiere 

Rapport sur le concours forestier entre les instituteurs 
organise par la Soc*^ frano^® des Amis des Arbres 

La sylviculture a I'Exposition de 1900 

La disparition du chene et I'introduction des resineux dans 

les taillis sous futaie — Le Bouleau 
Principales essences forestieres 
La methode experimental en sylviculture 
Le forestier — Experiences et Conseils 
Sylviculture 
Propagation du chene, Sa substitution dans les futaies de 

hetre 
Les plantes S, caoutchouc et h gutta 
Degats causes aux forSts par les balles des fusils de 

I'armee 
La vrillette 

Incendies des forets — evaluation des dommages 
Les arbres et les bois 

La richesse forestiere, son declin, son relevement 
Forets et Industrie des bois 
Des divers moyens propres h preserver de I'attaque des 

insectes les ecorces et les bois par resorption de leur 

reserve amylacee 
La liberte du travail et le droit de propriete 

Prolongation du delai de vidange et d'exploitation 

Exploitation et amenagement des bois 

Causerie forestiere 

Coupes jardinatoires 

De I'eclaircie chez les particuliers 

Lianes caoutchoutiferes de I'Etat du Congo 

L'arbre (F^ Serie) 

La houille blanche et I'armature vegetale du sol 

Gisements de houille blanche et protection du sol 

Les debuts de la fixation des dunes 

Promenades, pares jardins paysages 

L'amenagement des resineux en montagne 

De la possibilite par contenance dans les sapinieres 

Foret domaniale des Elieux — 3^ Serie Revision de I'Amen- 

agement 
Les taillis de I'inspection de Dijon — Sud 
A Madagascar, Aper^u sur les forets et leurs produits 
Commission d'etudes forestieres — Compte rendu 

La greve des bdcherons de la Nievre k la chambre 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Prouve 


Poitiers 


1902 


Cardot 


Poitiers 


1902 


Mer 


Paris 


1902 


d'Hubert 


Paris 


1902 


Demorlaine 


Paris 


1902 


Henry 


Nancy 


1902 


Dumesny 


Paris 


1902 


Henry 


Nancy 


1902 


Fabre 


Bordeaux 


1902 


Henry 


Nancy 


1902 


de Liocourt 


Nancy 


1902 


Cardot 


Orleans 


1902 


Bouquet de la 


Paris 


1902 


Grye 






Rosemont 


Paris 


1902 


Mouillefert 


Paris 


1903 


Mer 


Paris 


1903 


Morange 


Gengve 


1903 


Fron 


Paris 


1903 


Prouve 


Paris 


1903 


Jumelle 


Paris 


1903 


Georges 


Paris 


1903 


de Fonvert 


Paris 


1903 


Jacquot 


Paris 


1903 


de Kirwan 


Nancy 


1903 


Carimintrand 


Paris 


1903 


Flahault 


Paris 


1903 


Mer 


Paris 


1903 


Journal de la 


Nevers 


1903 


Ni#vTe 






Journal de la 


Nevers 


1903 


Nievre 






Mouillefert 


Paris 


1904 


Desjobert 


Besangon 


1904 


Schaeffer 


Besangon 


1904 


Broilliard 


Bruxelles 


1904 


de Vildemann 


Bruxelles 


1904 


Reynard 


Clermont- 
Terrand 


1904 


Fabre 


Bagneres de 
Bigorre 


1904 


Fabre 


Paris 


1904 


Buffaut 


Bordeaux 


1904 


Guinier 


Auncey 


1904 


d'Alverny 


BesauQon 


1904 


Broilliard 


Besangon 


1904 


Cuif 


Nancy 


1904 


Galmiche 


Besanpon 


1904 


Girod-Genet 


Paris 


1904 


Gouvt General 


Alger 


1904 


d I'Algerie 






Journal de la 


Nevers 


1904 


Nievre 







460 



APPENDIX 



Title Author 

Les incendies pastoraux et les associations dites " forestieres " Fabre 

dans les Pyrenees-Orient'^^ 

Economie forestieie Huffel 

L'idee forestiere dans rhistoirie Teissier 

Projet d'association forestiere de Liscourt 

Lettre a un proprietaire de futaie jardinee Galmiche 

Influence des eclaircies dans les peuplements reguliers de Cuif 

sapin 

Les friches de la H''®-Marne Cardot 

Les essences forestieres du Soudan propres a la construction Constancia 

Le bois Beauverie 

Le regime des cours d'eau du depart* de I'Aveyron et la Biiffault 

question du reboisement 

La vegetation spontanee et la salubrite des eaux Fabre 

Coup d'oeil d'ensemble sur les forets coloniales de la France Girod-Genet 

Prix des bois dans le Maine en 1904 Roulleau 

La question forestiere en Soudan Jolyet 

La question forestiere en Algeria Demontes 

Notice sur les forets de la Kroumirie (Tunisie) Desgreaux 

La richesse forestiere du Canada confedere Leymarie 

La question forestiere en Espagne Cavailles 

Les friches de la H^^-Marne, leur mis een valeur par des Cardot 

travaux forestiers 

Nos arbres Correvon 

Restauration d'une sapiniere BroilUard 

Mathematiques et Nature Broilliard 

Aide a la gestion des bois particuliers Desjobert 

Les insectes dans les forets resineuses des Vosges de Gail 

Essai sur le paturage dans les bois Desjobert 

Les reboisements facultatifs dans la region sous-pyrenienne Bauby 

Le reboisement des terres en friche dans I'arrondissement Parde 

de Neufch4teau 

Analyse et controle des semences forestieres Fron 

Les garrigues communales des environs de Carcassonne Rouis 

et de Narbonne 

Etude sur la question du reboisement dans le Sud-est de Boixo 

Pyreneen 

De I'elagage des sapins et epiceas Mer 

Guide pratique du fonctionnaire se rendant en Indo-Chine Lambert 

La question forestiere en France Parde 

La deforestation — Peril mondial Duffart 

Memoire relatif k un projet de loi sur les forets d'utilite Reynard 

publique 

Deboisement et decadence Regnault 

La Dordogne deboisee Broilliard 

Les forets et les pluies Henry 

Gironde et Pyrenees Broilliard 

La marche envahissante des dunes de Gascogne avant leur Buffant 

fixation 

La foret de Laroque des AlbSres Buffault 

Rendement des forets domaniales de pin maritime dans les de Lapasse 

dunes landaises 

Soumission volontaire au regime forestier Broilliard 

Exposition coloniale de Marseille — Catalogue des collec- Gouvern* G^' 

tions du Service forestier algerien de I'Algerie 

Repertoire des arbres, arbustes, etc., composant la collection Gouvern* G^' 

d'ensemble des ressources forestieres de Madagascar — de I'Algerie 

k I'Exposit. Coloniale de Marseille 

Projet d'association forestiere (2^ article) de Liscour^ 

Traite d'exploitation commerciale des bois Mathey 

Sylviculture (diverses questions) de Kirwan 

Manuel de sylviculture k I'usage des instituteurs Cardot 

Forets, pa,turages, pres-bois Fron 



Place 
Besan^on 

Paris 

Paris 

Besan^on 

Besangon 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 
Paris 
Rodey 

Paris 

Nice 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Tunis 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 
Besangon 



Besanfon 
Besangon 
Besangon 
Bordeaux 
Besangon 

Besangon 
Carcassonne 

Toulouse 

Besangon 

Paris 

Poitiers 

Paris 

Besangon 

Paris 

Bergerac 

Bergerac 

Bordeaux 

Paris 

Bordeaux 
Poitiers 

Besangon 
Alger 

Marseille 



Besangon 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 



Date 
1904 

1904-07 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 

1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 

1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 

1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 

1906 
1906 

1906 

1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 

1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 

1906 
1906 

1906 
1906 

1906 



1906 
1906-08 
1907 
1907 
1907 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



461 



Title 
Aide memoire du forestier — Sylviculture 
Quelques mots relatifs a I'assurance des forets en cas d'in- 

cendie 
Du reboisement dans Tarrond* de Mirecourt 
Le reboisement et les conditions economiques en montagne 
L'obstacle au reboisement 
Deboisement et reboisement 
Le reboisement dans la region des Cevennes 
La question de I'elagage 

Les resources agricoles et forestieres des colonies frangaises 
Preservation des bois contre la pourriture par le sol, les 

champignons les insectes 
L'lndustrie de la resine en Sologne 
La culture des arbres et les idees des anciens sur le role 

des forets 
La restauration des montagnes et la navigation interieure 
Action de la foret sur le sol et le regime des eaux 
Embellissons nos bois 

Vingt-cinq annees dans le service des amenagements 
Foret domaniale d'Amance — Revision de I'Amenagement 
Amenagement et amelioration des forets particuliers 
Evolution des methodes d'amenag* appliquees en France 

aux forets d'essences feuillues 
Conferences forestieres 1^ Forets et friches particuli^res — 

2° — amenagement 
La ville d'Oloron et sa Foret du Eager 
La defense des montagnes 
Les richesses forestieres de la Russie 

L'Australie, ses ressources forestieres 

Exposition internat'^ de St. Louis — Rapports des groupes 

112, 113, 114. Forets 
Nouvelles etudes sur I'economie alpestre 
L'utilite de I'amenag'' des montagnes, etc. 
3^ Congres de ramenag*" des montagnes tenu h, Bordeaux les 

19-20-21 Juillet 1907 
Etude sur la condition forestiere de I'Orleanais 
Etude sur les deux places de production des forets domaniales 

de Haye et d'Amance 
Accroissement d'un massif jardine 
Conservation des taillis en futaie 



Livre vert du syndicat forestier de France 

Le reboisement par I'initiative privee 

De I'mpot foncier applique aux forets 

La foret, son role dans la nature et la societe 

Manuel de I'eau 

Le deboisement et les inondations 

Le problenie de I'influence de la foret sur I'inondation 

Les plantations de pins dans la Champagne crayeuse 

Des essences pour les reboisements 

ForSts particulieres 

La Sologne en 18.50 — Souvenirs 

Le Haut-Beaujolais 

La deforestation de la France 

Livre vert du syndicat forestier de France (Notice) 

La feuille au le revenu foncier 

Le revenu imposable aux forets 

L'evaluation du revenu imposable aux forets 

Le revenu imposable aux forets 

A propos des ameliorations pastorales 

Le probleme pastoral et forestier 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Demorlaine 


Besangon 


1907 


Decoppet 


Besangon 


1907 


de Rozieres 


Mirecourt 


1907 


Bauby 


Bordeaux 


1907 


Buffault 


Bordeaux 


1907 


de Kirwan 


Paris 


1907 


Buffault 


Rodey 


1907 


Mer 


Besangon 


1907 


Jumelle 


Marseille 


1907 


Henry 


Nancy 


1907 


de Larnage 


Orleans 


1907 


Buffault 


Rodey 


1907 


Fabre 


Dijon 


1907 


Fron 


Paris 


1907 


Broilliard 


Bruxelles 


1907 


Brenot 


Morteau 


1907 


Cuif 


Nancy 


1907 


Viardin 


Neufchateau 


1907 


Huffel 


Neufchateau 


1907 


de Liocourt et 


Neufchateau 


1907 


Viardin 






Buffault 


Toulouse 


1907 


Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1907 


Direct de I'agri- 


Bordeaux 


1907 


culture 






Buffault 


Bourges 


1907 


Hugo 


Paris 


1907 


Briot 


Paris 


1907 


Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1907 


Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1907 


de Maulde 


Orleans 


1908 


Cuif 


Poitiers 


1908 


Schaeffer 


Besangon 


1908 


Societe Forest^ 


Besangon 


1908 


de Franche- 






Comte 






de Rozieres 


Paris 


1908 


Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1908 


Schaeffer 


Besangon 


1908 


Jacquot 


Besangon 


1908 


Reclus 


Paris 


1908 


Teissier 


Lyon 


1908 


Teissier 


Poitiers 


1908 


Lapic 


Reims 


1908 


Broilliard 


Besangon 


1908 


Deffert 


Paris 


1908 


Martin 


Paris 


1908 


Hulin 


Besangon 


1908 


de Sailly 


Besangon 


1908 


de Liocourt 


Paris 


1908 


Broilliard 


Besangon 


1908 


Roulleau 


Besangon 


1908 


Arnoult 


Paris 


1908 


Jacquot 


Besangon 


1908 


Seurre 


Besangon 


1908 


Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1908 



462 



APPENDIX 



Title 
Guide pour la creation de Socles foresf^^ Scolaires 
Futaie reguliere d'ages gradues et jardinage cultural controle 
Le martelage an debut de I'ere Merovingienne 
La Conservation en futaies des forSts traitees en taillis sous 

futaie 
Du traitement des bois feuilles 
Du traitement des bois feuilles 
Considerations sur le traitement des forets en taillis ou 

futaie 
Les immeubles forestiers et les C'^^ d'assurances 
Essai en grand du Carbolineum avenarius 
Preservation des bois par des precedes simples 
Le gemmage du Pin noir dans le N-E de la France 
Influence du convert de la foret sur la temperature du Sol 
Amenagement d'une foret coloniale 
Les eaux et forets en Lorraine au XVIII^ Siecle 
Choses forestieres coloniales fi'angaises 
Les bois et les forets du Perigord 
Les atteintes legislatives a la propriete forestiere — La coupe 

rase et la loi des cinti possibilites 
Compte-rendu des excursions faites a I'occasion du Congres 

de Nancy, dans les forets d'Amance, de Haye, des Elieux 
Association centrale pour I'amenag'' des montagnes 
La 1""^ etape de I'association pour ramenagement des mon- 
tagnes 
De I'exploitation des futaies 
A propos du Pin sylvestre — Valeur des graines et plantes 

frangiases 
Le choix des semences en culture forestiere 
Guide pour la creation de societes forestieres scolaires 
Pullulation du lapin en Allemagne Invasion du Taret dans le 

port de Marseille 
Statuts du syndicat forestier d'Eure & Loire 
Guide pratique pour les proprietaires de bois 

(b) FOREST LAW 

Des forets et le projet de code rural 

Dictionnaire General des Forets 

Cours d'appel de Nancy — Conclusions pour M. M. Mohr et 

Haas, contre M. Haldy 
Cours d'appel de Nancy — Conclusions pour M. Haldy, contre 

M. M. Mohr et Haas (6 Nov. 1873) 
Lachasse et la louveterie 



Author 
Descombes 
Ducamp 
Huffel 
Huffel 

Vaulot 
Algan 
Gurnaud 

Descombes 

Henry 

Henry 

Cuif 

Cuif 

Jolyet 

Boye 

Ducamp 

Buffault 

Roulleau 

Cuif 



Place 
Bordeaux 
Besancon 
Poitiers 
Besangon 

Besancon 
Besanfon 
Paris 

Bordeaux 

Nancy 



Besanjon 

Nancy 

Paris 

Paris 

Besangon 

Bordeaux 

Le Mans 

Besanfon 



Date 
1908 
1909 
1909 
1909 

1909 
1909 
1909 

1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 

1909 



Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1909 


Descombes 


Bordeaux 


1909 


Broilliard 


Bruxelles 


1910 


Hickel 


Paris 


1910 


Guinier 


Nancy 


1910 


de Boixo 


Bordeaux 


1910 


Henry 


Nancy 


1910 


Mathey 


Chartres 


1910 


Roulleau 


Paris 


1910 


Puton 


Paris 


1870 


Rousset 


Nice 


1871-72 


Hisserant 


Nancy 


1873 


Lombard 


Nancy 


1873 


Petitbien 


Nancy 


1874 



Note presentee au CriCunal de Mirecourt pour Memvire 
au Consel de Prefecture^J T'c et Vilaine 

La Section des Chanoines de Dombasle, contre La Com- 
mune du dit 

Questions de droit forestier 

Dictionnaire General des forets 

Nouveau code du Chasseur 

Lettre a M^^^^ Lallement (affaire de I'ancienne prerote 
d'Hugier) 

De I'Administration et de la Jouissance des forfets com- 
munales 

Manuel de legislation forestiere 

De la prescription de la peine en matiere de delits forestiers 

Etude sur le projet de loi sur la restauration des montagnes 

Code de la Chasse et de la louveterie 

Contre les Commas de Laimpont et de S"" Peran 



Conclusions motivees pour Monseig. le Due d'Aumale con- 
tre la Commune de Rigniowez (Ardennes) 



Puton 



Nancy 



Puton 


Paris 


Rousset 


Paris 


Yiel 


Paris 


Meaume 


Nancy 


LarzilliSre 


Paris 


Puton 


Paris 


Puton 


Paris 


Tassy 


Paris 


Leblond 


Paris 


Thibaud, 


Nantes 


Nicoliere et 




Puton 




Meaume 


Nancy 



1874 

1875 

1875 
1875 
1875 
1876 

1876 

1876 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1878 

1880 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



463 



Title 
Contrainte pour Corps en matiere forestiere 
Le droit penal forestier 

Du jugement des infractions en matiere forestiere 
La Chasse 

Loi du Harril 1882 — Restauration et Conservation terrains 

en montagne 
Commentaire de la loi du Harril 1882 sur la Conservation 

des terrains en montagnes 
Le regime forestier applique au bois des communes et etab- 

lissements publics 
Code de legislation forestiere 
Etude sur la revision du code forestier 
Code Forestier (codes annotes) 
La Question des forets en Algerie 

Du droit de Chasse dans ses rapports avec la propriete 
Notice sur le projet de perimetre de I'Arc Superieur 
Essai de Commentaire Pratique de la loi du 4 Avril 1882, 

Conservation et Restauration des terrains en montagne 
Projet de loi sur le code forestier 
Les cours d'eau — Hydrologie, legislation 
Projet de loi sur la chasse 
Des delits et des peines en matiere forestiere au moyen-age 

dans le Duche de Bourgogne 
Essai sur le regime des Canaux 
La reforme du code forestier 

Code des cours d'eau non flottables ni navigables 
De I'usufruit des prets en droit romain et franfais 
Manuel judiciaire de la chasse 
La reforme du code forestier 

Du poutage de I'affouage dans les bois communaux 
Loi sur la peche fluviale 
Code Nouveau de la peche fluviale 
Les confiscations des forets d'emigres dans les Droit de 

peche des proprietaires d'etangs 
Departements de \'aucluse, du Gard et de I'Ardeche 
Cours de droit forestier enseigne k rEcole Secondaire des 

Barres 
Etude sur I'application de la loi du 4 Avril 1882 
Du droit de chasse et du droit de chasser le gibier 
Usagers de Dabo 
Principes de legislation forestiere 

Loi du 19 A%'Til 1901 sur I'affouage communal 
Conservation des forets et des Paturages dans les Pyrenees — 

Le regime pastoral 
L'espoir des cours d'eaux non navigables ni flottables 
La Peche dans les cours d'eaux 

Code de legislation forestiere (2^ Edit.) 
Commentaire de la Loi forestiere Algerienne 
Une question de droit d'usage en foret 
Etude historique sur la propriete des dunes de Gascogne 
Deux Questions forestieres — La nationalisation du sol for- 
estier — les forets de protection 
Le projet du code forestier de I'an IV 
Legislation et reglementation de la peche fluviale 
Observations sur la necessite de reformer nos lois forestieres 
Guide du forestier — Surveillance des forets (11^ Edit.) 

Nouveau regime forestier resultant des lois du 18 juillet et 

31 decre 1906 
Aide memoire du forestier — Sciences juridiques 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Guyot et Puton 


Paris 


1880 


des Chenes 


Paris 


1882 


Meaume 


Paris 


1882 


Girandeau et 


Paris 


1882 


Lelievre 






Tassy 


Paris 


1883 


Tetreau 


Paris 


1883 


Bouquet de 


Paris 


1883 


la Grue 






Puton 


Paris 


1883 


Doumenjou 


Paris 


1883 


Palloz 


Paris 


1884 


Wachi 


Oran 


1885 


Barthelemy 


Nancy 


1885 


Chapelain 


Chambery 


1886 


des Chenes 


Paris 


1886 


Viette 


Paris 


1888 


Lechalas 


Paris 


1890 


Clave 


Paris 


1891 


Picard 


Autun 


1891 


Carpentier 


Paris 


1892 


Prudhomme 


Paris 


1892 


Boule 


Paris 


1893 


Chancerel 


Paris 


1893 


Dumont 


Paris 


1894 


Guyot 


Nancy 


1894 


Germain 


Salins 


1895 


Bertrand 


Paris 


1896 


Martin 


Paris 


1897 


Rouis 


Autun 


1898 


Parde 


Les Barres 


1900 


Moujin 


Poitiers 


1901 


Barthelemy 


Nancy 


1901 


Pfister 


Motz 


1901 


Michel et 


Paris 


1901 


Lelong 






Germain 


Paris 


1901 


Guyot 


Toulouse 


1904 


Tisserand 


Paris 


1904 


Del Pere de 


Toulouse 


1904 


Cardaillac 






Puton et Guyot 


Paris 


1904 


Guyot 


Paris 


1904 


de Kirwan 


Paris 


1905 


Buffault 


Bordeaux 


1905 


Guyot 


Besangon 


1905 


Weyd 


Poitiers 


1905 


Mersey 


Paris 


1906 


Buffault 


Toulouse 


1906 


Bouquet de la 


Paris 


1906 


Grue 






Guibourg 


Paris 


1907 


Deroye 


Besangon 


1907 



464 



APPENDIX 



Title 
La soumission volontaire au regime forestier 
Sur les soumissions facultatives au regime forestier 
Code forestier suivi des lois sur la pSche la chasse et le 

code rural 
Notes sur les propositions des lois liberales pour le reboise- 

ment 
La regime administratif et juridique de la p^che fluviale 



Author 
Desjobert 
de Kirwan 
Palloz 

Descombes 

Raux 



Place 
Besanpon 
Besangon 
Paris 

Bordeaux 

Paris 



Date 
1908 
1908 
1908 

1908 

1909 



(c) FOREST EDUCATION 

Programme de I'enseigement, de I'EcoIe forestiere 

Programme des etudes d'amenag' defutaies a faire par les 
eleves de I'Ecole forestiere dans la foret des St. Gobain- 
Coucy 

Programmes de I'enseignement 

Ordre General pour I'execution du reglement de police et de 
discipline du 15 Nov. 1876; (I'Ecole Nat'® des Eaux et 
Forets) 

Ilcglements et programmes d'enseignement de I'Ecole forest- 
iere 

La sylviculture & I'Ecole primaire 

Ecole pratique des Barr^s, '-Programmes et conditions d'ad- 
missions pour les preposes k I'Ecole secondaire 

Notices sur I'Ecole forestiere et la station de Recherchcs 

Reglementsde I'Ecole forestiere (12 Octob. 1889) Personnel — 
Administration — Surveillance 

Arret du Ministre de I'Agriculture concernant I'Ecole forest- 
iere — Personnelle 

Ordre general — Organisation de I'Enseignement 

Notice sur I'installation de I'Ecole foresf* de Nancy 

L'Enseignement forestier en France (Ecole de Nancy) 

L'Ecole forestiere de Nancy 

Ecole des Barres-Regime, Discipline, etc. 

Rapport sur la visite des collections et du fardin de I'Ecole 
nat'®^ des Eaux et ForSts 

Arretes et reglements concernant I'Ecole N'® des Eaux et 
Forets 

Arretes et reglements de I'Ecole N'® 



Ecole forestiere 


Paris 


1876 


Boppe 


Nancy 


1876 


Ecole forestiere 


Paris 


1876-82 


Puton 


Nancy 


1883 


Direction des 


Paris 


1887 


forets 






Caquet 


Nevers 


1887 


Ministere de 


Paris 


1888 


I'agriculture 






Ministere de 


Paris 


1889 


I'agriculture 






Direction des 


Paris 


1890 


forfits 






Ecole Forestiere 


Paris 


1893 


Boppe 


Nancy 


1894 


Guyot 


Nancy 


1896 


Guyot 


Nancy 


1898 


Nesmy 


Paris 


1904 


Direction G'^ 


Paris 


1904 


Guimer 


Paris 


1909 


Ministere dc 


Paris 


1910 


I'agriculture 






Ecole Forestiere 


Paris 


1910 



(d) ENGINEERING (REBOISEMENT) 



Les torrents des Alpes et le p.lturage 
Etude sur les torrents des Ht^-Alpes 
Les torrents, leurs lois, leurs causes 

Notes sur I'extinction des torrents 

Etude d'un Systeme general de defense contre les torrents 

Les torrents des Alpes et le paturage (2'^ Edit.) 

Notice sur les cartes, dessins, niodeles, etc. relatifs aux 
travaux de reboisement dans le bassin de la Durance 

Etude sur les travaux de reboisement et gazonnement des 
montagnes 

Monographies de travaux executes dans les Alpes, les Cev- 
ennes, et les Pyrenees 

Le reboisement des Alpes 

Traite pratique du rebois*, et du gazonnement des mon- 
tagnes (2° Edit.) 

Etude sur la construction des barrages 

De I'amenagement des Eaux en Suisse 



Marchand 


Arbois 


1872 


Surell 


Paris 


1872 


Costa de 


Paris 


1874 


Bastellica 






Tassy 


Toulouse 


1874 


Breton 


Paris 


1875 


Marchand 


Paris 


1876 


Dcmontzey 


Paris 


1878 


Demontzey 


Paris 


1878 


Administration 


Paris 


1878 


des forets 






Clave 


Paris 


1881 


Demontzey 


Paris 


1882 


Vaultrin 


Paris 


1884 


de Salis 


Berne 


1884 



Reglement et conditions d'admission. 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



465 



Title 
Etude sur la restauration et la conservation des mon- 

tagnes dans le Dept. de I'lsere 
Note sur les Bargges curvilignes 
Perimetre de restauration de I'Ulage 

Reveil instantane d'un torrent eteint.-Le Signer (Ari^ge) 
La Restauration des terrains en montagne au Pavilion des 

forets 
Le reboisement des montagnes et I'extinction des torrents 
Restauration des montagnes 
Note sur la catastrophe de St. Gervais 
Questions forestieres et de defenses contre les inondations, 

etc. 
La correction des torrents en Suisse 

Etude sur Grenoble — Les reboisernents et les transformations 
L'Extinction des torrents en France 
Rapport d'une mission en Suisse (Torrents) 

Travaux de Correction — Torrent du Riculet H'^s Pyrenees 
Eboulements, glissements, barrages 
Les torrents et les paysages torrentiels 
Consolidation des berges par I'erivation d'un torrent 
Travaux des defenses contre les avalanches dans la vallee 

de Bareges 
Correction des ruines de Pellafol (Isere) 
Les torrents glaciaires 

Les terrains et les paysages torrentiels (Pyrenees) 
Restauration et conservation des terrains en montagne. 

C. Reude Sommaire des trav. (1860-1900) 
Notice historique sur G. G. inondations dans la Savoie 
La vallee de Bareges et le Reboisement 
La correction des torrents en Savoie 
Les debacles glaciaires 
Les effets de I'erosion 
Une excursion dans la vallee du Veneon (IsSre) 



Author 


Place 


Date 


Charlemagne 


Grenoble 


1887 


Thiery 


Paris 


1888 


Carridre 


Barcelonnette 


1888 


Vaultrin 


Toixe 


1889 


Demontzey 


Paris 


1889 


Demontzey 


Paris 


1891 


Thiery 


Paris 


1891 


Demontzey 


Paris 


1892 


Nicollet 


Grenoble 


1892 


de Sails 


Berne 


1892 


Heurteloupe 


Grenoble 


1892 


Demontzey 


Paris 


1894 


Thiery et 


Paris 


1896 


PetiscoUot 






Pellon 


Paris 


1900 


Kuss 


Paris 


1900 


Champsaur 


Paris 


1900 


Moujin 


Paris 


1900 


Campagne 


Paris 


1900 


Bernard 


Paris 


1900 


Kuss 


Paris 


1900 


de Gorsse 


Paris 


1900 


Ministere de 


Paris 


1900 


I'agriculture 






Durandard 


Paris 


1900 


Campagne 


Pau 


1902 


Mougin 


Besan^on 


1904 


Rabot 


Paris 


1905 


Pinner 


Marseille 


1908 


Hulin 


Besan?on 


1908 



(e) FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

De I'utilite d'une reorganisation de I'Administration des 

forets 
La question des forets devant I'assemblee Nationale (Lettre 

d M. M. les Deputes) 
Reponse au rapport de M. Fare contre la translation de 

I'Administration des forets au Ministere de I'Agriculture 
Reorganisation du Service forestier, reformes de la loi du 

9 Juin 1853 sur les pensions civiles 
Douaniers, forestiers, etc., organisation en armes 
Essai sur la reorganisation du Service forestier en France 
Etude sur la reorganisation de I'Administration forestiSre 
Les reformes forestieres 

Etude sur la reorganisation de I'Administration des forets 

Etudes forestieres 

Annexe d I'etude sur la reorganisation de I'Administration 

des forets 
Reorganisation du Service forestier (4 facs.) 
Le Corps des forestiers et le projet de M. M. Tassy et 

Lorentz 
De vis d'une maison de Garde (Type No. 1) 

Reorganisation du Service forestier (M. de Mahyer Meline) 
Notes sur le recrutement du corps forestier 
La gestion de forets au Ministere des Finances 
Le Dernier Directeur General de forets 



Mer 


Provina 


1871 


Turot 


Bars aube 


1872 


Turot 


Bars aube 


1873 


Wisst 


Paris 


1875 


Caise 


Paris 


1875 


Caise 


Paris • 


1875 


Meatime 


Paris 


1878 


Bouquet de 


Troyes 


1878 


la Grue 






Bertin 


Lille 


1878 


Bertin 


Lille 


1879 


Bertin 


Lille 


1879 


Tassy 


Paris 


1879-80 


Deupion 


Charleville 


1882 


Administration 


Paris 


1882 


Forestier 






Tassy 


Paris 


1884 


Meline 


Paris 


1884 


de Venel 


Paris 


1884 


de Venel 


Paris 


1884 



466 



Title 
M. Viette et le budget des forets au 1885 
Quelquos considerations sur I'organisation de I'Administra- 

tion des forfits 
Uapport sur les modifications introduites dans I'Adminis- 

tration forestiire 
Une page d'histoire forestifire 

L'Oeuvre de M. Viette au ministfire de I'Agriculture 
Discussion du budget de 1891 — discours prononcc par M. 

le CoTnte de YoufTroy d'Abbans 
Le Service foresticr dans le Dept. d'Oran (Aglerie) 
Calendrier forestier (Tabl. des pidces k fournir) 
Dictionnaire Gal des forfits (2^ Edit.) 

Guide du chasseur forestier d I'usage des agents et preposes 
Historique adniinistratif du Cant*^ de Cirey-s-Vezouze 
Les ancienncs circulaires de rAdniiiiiston des eaux et forets 
Tournee de Vente d'un Grand Maitre des eaux et forets 
Etat des Services des E16ves de I'Ecole forestiere (1825 k 

1888) 
Les sceaux des forestiers au MoyenAge 
Societe de Secours niutuels des preposes forestiers du 

Doubs 
Les gardes cominunaux-domanialisation 
Mcnioire sur les rcfornies k spcro dans le Service Forestier 
Notice historique sur le recrutement de I'Adrninistration des 

forets et sur I'enseig'"', forestier en France 



APPENDIX 










Author 


Place 


Date 




Taillis 


Paris 


1885 


e I'Administra- 


Taillis 


Paris 


1886 



Welche 



Poitiers 



1888 



Suchaux 


Vesoul 


1888 


Suchaux 


Vesoul 


1889 


de Youffroy 


Paris 


1891 


d'Abbans 






Mathieu 


Alger 


1892 


Demaret 


Alger 


1892 


Rousset et 


Digne 


1894 


Bauer 






Bauer 


Paris 


1894 


Weyd 


Nancy 


1899 


Weyd 


Poitiers 


1904 


Desjobert 


BesanQon 


1905 


Weyd 


Poitiers 


1905 


Roman 


Paris 


1906 


Roman 


Besan^on 


1907 


Chambeau 


Pau 


1907 


Volmerange 


Commercy 


1896 


Guyot 


Nancy 


1898 



(f) MISCELLANEOUS 

La Republique orientals de I'Uraguay k I'Exposition de 
Vienne 

Republique de Salvador — Notice historique et statistique. 
(Exposit. Universelle, 1878) 

Republique de Salvador — Catalogue des objets exposes a 
I'Exposition universelle 1878 

Notice sur les objets exposes de la Republique de Guatemala 

Catalogue dc la collection exposee par la Chine k I'Exposi- 
tion universelle 

Catalogue de la section anglais 

Queensland Australie — Guide dc la Colonie 

Le .lapon k I'Exposition 

Catalogue des produits des colonies frangaises 

Catalogue officiel — Liste des recompenses 

Catalogue d'echantillons de bois du jardin botanique de 

St. Petersbourg envoyes k I'Exposition universelle de 

1878 
Notices sur les modules, desseins, etc., relatifs aux Travaux 

des Ponts et Chaussees et Mines 
Exposition universelle de 1889 — Comites d'admission — 

Membres du Jury — Recompenses 
Les Expositions de I'Etat au Champ de Mars et aux 

Invalides 
L'Exposition universelle de 1889 
Conferences de I'Exposition universelle de 1889 



Catalogue de la section frangaise ;\ I'Exposition de Vienne — 

1890 
Rapport general — Rapport du Jury (Exposition universelle 

de 1889) 27 volumes 
Exposition Univer*^"^ de 1889 — Produits de la chasse, 

peche, etc. 



Vaillant 


Montevideo 


1873 


Vaillant 


Paris 


1878 


Guzman 


Paris 


1878 


Boucard 


Paris 


1878 


Boucard 


Shanghai 


1878 


Exposit. Univel'e 


Louvre 


1878 


de 1878 






Id. 


Louvre 


1878 


Id. 


Paris 


1878 


Id. 


Paris 


1878 


Id. 


Paris 


1878 



de Loverdo 



Paris 



Ministdre des Paris 

Trav* Publics 
Id. Paris 



de Parville 



Paris 



de Parville 




Paris 


Ministeres des 




Paris 


Conmicrces, 


de 




rindustrie, i 


etc 




de Loverdo 




Vienne 


Picard 




Paris 


de Clermont 




Paris 



1879 

1889 

1889 

1890 

1890 
1890 

1890 

1891-96 

1892 



FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE 



467 



Title 
Exposition Univer^^'^^ — Groupe de rEconomie sociale 
Exposition Univer^^l'^ Agriculture, viticulture, pisciculture, 

horticulture 
L'horticulture frangaise ^ Chicago et aux Etats-Unis 
Vi^ Congres internat^' d'AgricuIture 

Congres internaf*' de I'Enseignement agricole 
Congres internat'''' de Sylviculture (C. rendu sommaire) 
Exposition univ^"^ de 1900 — Senegal et Soudan 
Exposition univ^"^ de 1900 — Notice sur le Congo frangais 
Exposition univ®"^ de 1900 — Notice sur la Nouvelle 

Caledonie 
Exposition univ*"^ de 1900 — Les etablisst^ frangais de 

I'Etude 
Exposition univ^^'^ Je 1900 — St. Pierre et Miquelon 
Exposition univ^l'e de 1900 — La Reunion 
Exposition univ^"^ de 1900 — La Cote d'lvoire 
Exposition univ®"^ de 1900 — La Cote des Somalis 
Exposition univ^^'"^ de 1900 — La Guinee frangaise 
Exposition univ^"^ de 1900 — La Guadeloupe et dependances 
Exposition univ^''^ de 1900 — I'lndo-Chine 
Exposition nouv^"® de 1900 — Etabliss''^ frangais de I'Oceanie 
Exposition univ^^'^ de 1900 — Notice sur la Guyane 
Exposition univ^"® de 1900 — La Martinique 
Exposition univ®"® de 1900 — Notice sur Mayotte et les 

Comores 
Exposition univ^^'^ de 1900 — Madagascar 
Exposition univ^''^ de 1900 — Le Dahomey 
Congres internat^' de viticulture (C. Rendu) 

Actes de Congres international de botanique 

Congres international d'Horticulture 

Compte-rendu du Congres international de I'Alimenta- 

tion du betail (Juin 1900) 
lime Congres apicole (pces Verle* des Seances) 
Congres internat'''' de surveillance & de securite en matiere 

d'appareils ^ vapeur 
Exposition universelle de 1900 — Congres international de 

Sylviculture (compte-rendu) 
Apercee sommaire des objets exposes par rAdministration 

generale des apanages imperiaux de Russie k I'Exposition 

universelle de 1900 

Les produits du sol des Colonies frangaises h, I'Exposition 

Pan-Americaine de Buffalo 
L'Alimentation en eaux et I'assainissement des villes k 

I'exposition universelle de 1900 
I^r Congres du Sud-Owest navigable tenu k Bordeaux 

12-14 Juin 1902 (C.-rendu des travaux) 
IV^ Congres internat^' de Chimie applique 
Congres international de I'Alpinisme 

Rapports divers — (Exposition universelle de 1900) 66 vol- 
umes 
Le second congres du Sud-Quest navigable tenu k Toulouse 

en 1903 
Exposition universelle de 1900 — Rapport General adminis- 

tratif et technique 9 volumes — Preliminaires — Plan de- 

finitif 
Palais et edifices — Admission Catalogues — Recompenses 

Congres — Concours, Services divers, etc. 
Concours internationaux d'Exercices physiques et des 

sports 
Le Bilau d'un Sificle (Exposit. Universelle) 



Author 
Say, Lavallee 
Ministeres 

divers 
de Vilmorin 
Ministere de 

I'agriculture 
de Lagorse 
Daubree 
Exposit. Univelle 
Guillemot 
Exposit Univelle 

Guy 



Place 
Paris 
Paris 

Paris 
Paris 

Paris 
Paris 
Paris 
Paris 
Paris 

Paris 



Generale des 
apanages im- 
periaux 
Mederlin 

Imbeaux 

Moissan 

Moissan 
Moissan 
Picard 



Paris 
Paris 
Paris 



Date 
1892 
1892 

1894 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 

1900 



Caperon 


Paris 


1900 


Garsault 


Paris 


1900 


Mille 


Paris 


1900 


Vigneras 


Paris 


1900 


Famechon 


Paris 


1900 


Guesde 


Paris 


1900 


Nocolas 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Bassieres 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Vienne 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. de 


Paris 


1900 


1900 






Perrot 


Paris 


1900 


Bergmann 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Caillas 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Exposit. Univelle 


Paris 


1900 


Administration 


Paris 


1900 



1901 

1902 
1902 



Paris 1902 

Clermont (Oise) 1902 
Paris 1902-07 



Moissan Poitiers 1903 

Exposit. Univelle Paris 1903 

Picard Paris 1903 

Exposit. Univelle Paris 1903 

Picard Paris 1903-07 



468 



APPENDIX 



Title 
Le V® Congrds du S. Quest navigable tenu ^ Bergerac du 6 

au 9 Juillet 1906 
Premier et 2*^ Congres de ramenagement des montagnes 

(Compte-rendu 1905-06) 
Premier CongrSs international du froid 



Author Place Date 

Exposit. Univ^'le Bergerae 1906 

Exposit. Uniyelle Bordeaux, 1906-07 

Pau 

de Loverdo Paris 1908 



(g) BOTANICAL AND SILVICAL 

Herbier forestier de la France 

Pin Sylvestre 

Notes sur le pin Cembro 

Manuel de botanique forestiere 

Etude des differents sols du depart^ de la Gironde 

Les cendres des essences principales de la foret de la Haye 

Notes sur le sorbus latifolia 

L'Eucalyptus et les applications industrielles 

Flore forestiere (3*^ Edit.) 

Remarques sur deux Varietes d'epicea 

Catalogue des vegetaux ligneux indigenes et exotiques ex- 

istant sur le domaine des Barres 
Le Chene vert ou le chene yeuse dans le Gard 
L'Eucalyptus, sa culture 
Les essences forestieres du Japon 
Memoire sur les eucalyptus introduits dans la region Medi- 

terraneenne 
Les bois industriels, indigenes et exotiques 
Notes sur les Eucalyptus geants de I'Australie 
Observations sur la nionographie des Pins sylvestres 
Les reboisements par I'Acacia 
Notes sur les arbres geants du Portugal 
Etude sur le pin pinier 

Les chenes de I'Amerique Septen'^ en Belgique 
La vegetation des Gausses 
Les Hybrides du Quercus suber 
Causerie sur les bois de la Guyane 
Arboretum de I'Ecole d'Agriculture de Grignon 
Le Pin maritime des Landes et de Gascogne 
Le Sapin de Douglas 

Revue des travaux de botanique forestiere 
Le pin ^ Suere 
Recherches sur la decomposition des matieres organiques 

Traite des arbres et des arbrisseaux 

Illustrations des chenes de I'Europe et d'Orient 

Arboretum National des Barres 

Nature et utilisation des produits forestiers des Pyrenees- 

Orientales 
Sur les formes accidentales du pinus laricio 
Sols forestiers et sols agricoles 
Le Chene de Juin 

Les Sapins sans branches de Chaumont 

Poids et composition de la converture morte des forets, etc. 
Du reboisement et de la fertilisation des forets 
Flore forestiere (4^ Edit.) 
Remarques sur le Juniperus Thuriferea et esp^ces voisines 

du bassin de la Mediterranee 
Nomenclature des principales essences forestieres de la Co- Richard 

chin Chine 



De GayfEer 


Paris 


1868-73 


de Morogues 


Orleans 


1873 


Tassy 


Digne 


1873 


Flicke 


Nancy 


1873 


Baudrimont 


Bordeaux 


1874 


Henry 


Paris 


1876 


Godron 


Montpellier 


1876 


Martin 


Paris 


1877 


Mathieu 


Nancy 


1877 


Brenot 


Paris 


1878 


Adon des forets 


Paris 


1878 


Begimbeau 


Nimes 


1879 


Pelagand 


Lyon 


1880 


Dupont 


Paris 


1880 


Naudin 


Paris 


1883 


Grisard 


Paris 


1883 


Joly 


Paris 


1885 


de Morogues 


Orleans 


1885 


Caquet 


Nevers 


1886 


Joly 


Paris 


1886 


Flicke 


Nancy 


1886 


Houba 


Hasselt 


1887 


Ivolas 


Montpellier 


1889 


Frabut 


Paris 


1889 


Dupre 


Melun 


1889 


Mouillefert 


Paris 


1889 


Dupre 


Melun 


1889 


Zeiller 


Paris 


1890 


Henry 


Paris 


1890 


Hickel 


Rennes 


1890 


Wollny Trad 


Nancy 


1892 


Henry 






Mouillefert 


Paris 


1892-98 


Kotschy 


Vienne 


1892-98 


Parde 


Paris 


1892-98 


Calas 


Perpignan 


1893 


de Vilmoriz 


Paris 


1894 


Huffel 


Nancy 


1894 


Gilardoni 


Nancy 


1895 


Moreillon 


Neufchatel 


1896 


Henry 


Nancy 


1896 


Thezard 


Compifigne 


1897 


Mathieu 


Paris 


1897 


de Coincy 


Paris 


1898 



Saigon 



1898 



Le Chene de Juin 

Le Pin Laricio de Salzmann 

Note sur le Pirus Cordata 

Le chene de Juin (notes complimentaires) 



Jolyet 


Nancy 


1899 


Calas 


Perpignan 


1899 


Flicke 


Paris 


1900 


Gilardoni 


Nancy 


1900 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 



469 



Title 

Arbres forestiers etrangers (notes) 

Notes sur les vegetaux ligneux exotiques 

Les principaux vegetaux ligneux exotiques au point de vue 
forestier 

La decomposition de matieres organiques et les formes 
d 'humus 

Notes sur les hybrides du genre "sorbus" dans le Jura 
frangais 

Influence de la converture morte sur I'humidite du sol for- 
estier 

L'Epicea de St. Eustache 

Acclimatation du chene rouge aux environs de Rouen 

Les arbres etrangers du Domaine d'Harcourt 

Les cypres chauves Condal (Saone et Loire) 

fitude sur I'epicea compare au Sapin 

Les saules, determination, description, etc. 

Lianes caoutchoutiferes de I'Etat du Congo 

Descriptions de Sections transversales de 12 esp^ces des bois 
indigenes et exotiques 

Classification et monographie des Saules de France et d'Eu- 
rope (Texte et Atlas) 

Quelques vieux arbres de la contree (Aisne, Marne, Ar- 
dennes) 

Les peupliers au point de vue cultural pratique 

Emploi des essences forestieres indigenes et exotiques pour 
le boisement des differents sols 

Les vieux arbres interessants des environs d'Autun 

Les arbres du pare de Baleine 

Remarques sur quelques abies mediterraneans 

Les sols forestiers 

Essai de Geologie forestiers 

La forpt accumulatrice d'azote 

Note pour servir k la determination des Arbietin6es 



Author 


Place 


Date 


de Vilmoriz 


Paris 


1900 


Parde 


Paris 


1900 


Parde 


Besancon 


1900 


Wollny Trad. 


Paris 


1901 


Henry 






Flicke 


Paris 


1901 


Henry 


Nancy 


1902 


Guinier 


Annecy 


1902 


Hickel 


Elbeuf 


1902 


Hickel 


Rennes 


1902 


Gillot 


Autun 


1903 


Guinier 


BesanQon 


1903 


Guinier 


Anncey 


1904 


Vildermann 


Bruxelles 


1904 


Thil 


Paris 


1904 



Camus 



Jadart 



Paris 



Reims 



1904-5 



1904 



de Kirwan 


Autun 


1904 


Parde 


Besangon 


1905 


Gillot 


Autun 


1907 


Parde 


Moulins 


1908 


Guinier 


Paris 


1908 


Henry 


Nancy 


1908 


Schaeffer 


Besangon 


1908 


Henry 


Besangon 


1908 


Hickel 


Paris 


1909 



APPENDIX I 

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 

Dr. Martin, of Tharandt, with a party of German foresters, made a critical study of 
French forest conditions in 1900 and reported upon them in 1906. This technical 
critique and appreciation of French methods is of unique value to a student of forestry 
in France. It is, therefore, reproduced as a reference, to represent the best German 
views on French methods. The 1878 statistics, now out of date, cited by Martin, 
have been omitted, as have his generalities on French forest trees. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE OAK UNDER THE HIGH FOREST SYSTEM i 

Occurrence and Growth. — In order that we might obtain an idea of the oak high 
forest we were shown several large forests in the catchment area of the Loire, the forests 
of Belleme, Berce, and Blois which serve as representative examples of the French 
system of oak culture. The first-mentioned ranges (Reviere) have the character of a 
pure oak forest with only here and there a greater or lesser intermixture of beech; 
while in the forests of Blois entire stands occur which have been converted from coppice 
with standards and coppice stands. 



Translated for the writer by F. W. Haasis in 1913. 



470 APPENDIX 

That a proper value may be placed on the following information, which may, in 
part, seem remarkable to the German forest owners, it is not out of place to remark 
that in the forests mentioned we perhaps did not see mean conditions as would ai)pear 
in an average of the whole country. By far the best conditions - of site and stand of 
the French government forests are there represented. If we would avoid an utter 
misconcei)tic)n we nuist b(> careful not to regard foreign conditions too favorably, and 
not to undervalue our own system of management. Ranges (Reviere) with good condi- 
tions of site and stand are, indeed, as a rule, the best adapted to studying critically 
principles of management and their application. Parts of ranges which, as far as the 
minor resources of the soil and stand are concerned, are to be managed diiferently 
from the predominating stands were also found, so that an idea can be gained from 
these of other conditions where the poorer stands occur in greater numbers. 

The site factors of the forests visited are very favorable for the oak. The soil is a 
deep loamy sand, for the most part sufficiently fresh. From analyses conducted in 
various stands of th(> Berce forest the soil contains 0.23 per cent nitrogen, 0.12 per cent 
potash, 0.04 per cent lime, 0.045 per cent phosphorus. In the pole forests and mature 
stands there is very frequently found a cover of holly {Ilex, L.) which, in connection with 
the beech which occurs normally as an understory, improves the soil and pr(;vents the 
growth of other cover. The elevation above the sea reaches 328 to G5G feet. The 
topography is mainly level or gently sloping. The climate, in accordance with the 
geographical location and the altitude, is mild and suitable for the oak. The mean 
rainfall is given as 27.6 inches. The greatest part occurs in summer so that extreme 
drought is not to be feared. Late and early frosts, which have so disastrous an in- 
fluence upon the height growth of the oak and the character of its wood, occur very 
infrequently. All these circumstances work together to produce favorable conditions 
for the growth of the oak. Optimum site conditions for the oak are here presented. 
"Everything concurs to render the climate humid and essentially favorable for tree 
growth," says Boppe, referring to this forest region. 

Of the two species of oak the sessile-flowered is of the more common occurrence in 
the forest under discussion. Its growth and form are very good. The stands are 
characterized in a general view by straight form, clear bole, and high (according to 
our estimate); averages 65 feet from the ground, often higher. The crowns are very 
narrow; the boles have a form like that of our softwoods (Gymnosperms). If an accu- 
rate representation could be made of the proportions of crown and stem diameters a 
result would be attained entirely different from that found in the case of the German 
oaks. It is corollary to this that the basal area per hectare is very high. In certain 
stands, running ISO to 220 years old, which were examined in this connection, a basal 
area was determined of 474 to 485 square feet per acre, which is 50 per cent greater 
than given for corresponding stands on first-quality sites in the new German yield 
tables.^ The number of trees per hectare in mature stands 180 to 200 years old amounts 
to about 200 (80 per acre) which is double the corresponding count in the tables cited; 
the mean diameter 20 to 22 inches, the volume of a tnmk 125 to 160 cubic feet. The 
height of the old(>r stands is mainly between 100 and 120 feet, individual trees being 
even higher. It follows from this that tlu^ volume, also, of the stands must be very 
high. Stands of more than 11,430, 12,860, and 14,290 cubic feet per acre, or about 
67,500 feet board measure per acre, with 50 cords per acre in addition, such as can 
almost never occur in Germany because of the natural conditions of growth, are here 
met with over large, continous areas. 

2 Dr. Martin was shown exceptionally favorable conditions. — T. S. W., Jr. 

' Schwappach, Unlersuchungen iiher die Z uwachsleislimgen von Eichen-H ochwald- 
bestanden in Preussen, 1905, S. 56. (Studies on the growth of stands of oak high forest 
in Prussia, 1905, p. 56.) 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 471 

The root habit of the oak, which could be very readily and very thoroughly studied 
on fresh blowdowns, seemed to us remarkably superficial. The observations which 
were made do not warrant the suggestion of an adequate explanation for this. Owing 
to the shallow root system, the remarkable height, the growth in fully stocked, dense, 
compact stands, the oak in those localities is more resistant to atmospheric influences, 
especially to wind, than is the case under other circumstances. A storm which had 
occurred the winter ])efore our visit had wrought heavy destruction in the compart- 
ments under regeneration. This is no unusual sight. To anticipate, we were often 
to see the same thing in the future. The conditions here found arc similar to those 
presented by the fir in the Vosges. The causes of breakage and damage by storms 
are far more often to be found in the conditions of growth than in the species. Under 
the conditions described, it is necessary, therefore, in the management of the oak, to 
employ methods which elsewhere are considered necessary only for shallow-rooted 
species. The ultimate strength of the crown and the distance from the ground of a 
crown which begins too high are of especial significance in their effects. 

Establishment of Stands. — Natural regeneration is the general practice in estab- 
lishing oak stands. The conditions for this are excei)tionally favorable. The soil, 
after the removal of the encumbering growth of beech and holly, which is incumbent 
upon the buyer, is rich in humus, loose, and well adapted to the germination of the 
acorn. Yet more favorable is the second factor which is necessary for natural repro- 
duction, namely seed production. Full seed crops are frequent, at intervals of about 
4 to 5 years, with extraordinarily rich production. Between these, on the other hand, 
half crops occur, which, however, under the circumstances, are likewise sufficient for a 
complete seeding up of the reproduction area. Nowhere can the influence of climate 
conditions upon the possibility of reproduction be more definitely recognized than here. 
The chief advantage of the full mast is to be found in the ease of supplementing the 
preceding seeding. In the 2 to 3 year intervals between seed years the mast (following 
the major reproduction) falls, indeed, upon favorable soil. In the remaining gaps the 
young growth first established seeds in a new advance growth of its own. Since they 
are but little different in age and seldom suffer from frost, the trees so established 
close with the reproduction previously established to form a uniform stand, while 
with longer intervals between two mast years the soil becomes overgrown with grass. 
The seedlings following this are retarded a greater and greater extent, while at the same 
time they suffer continually from frost and suppression. From the management 
standpoint the frequency of seed years and the favorable climate have the important 
effect that there is great freedom allowable as regards the time and manner of forming 
the seeding stage. 

Natural reproduction is generally effected through three cuttings in a manner similar 
to that usual in Germany under G. L. Hartig's system. The first aims to bring about 
seeding, the second to strengthen the young growth established, the third the isolation 
of the young stand. A preparatory cutting for the benefit of the soil is unnecessary. 
The cutting of standards {Hieb aus dem Vollen), which has given such good results in 
Hesse, has proved satisfactory in France also. It would seem that a preparatory 
cutting would be of value only for stimulating crown development and for effecting a 
better distribution of income. This object is better attained, however, by repeated, 
vigorous thinnings applied at the proper time, which would in addition result in a 
lessening of the long rotation period. 

The first of the cuttings mentioned (seed cutting) is as a rule made when a mast 
has occurred. However, this first cutting furnishes an example of the fact that, as 
we have seen, under the favorable conditions prevailing, it is not necessary to confine 
operations too strictly to seed years. A seed cutting had been made in a part of the 



472 APPENDIX 

stand the year before our visit which was not a seed year, another part was to be so 
treated the coming year which gave promise of a rich mast. The marking was of that 
type where the trees which are to be left standing are marked at breast height and 
at the base with a marking hammer. This had been done some time before, and at 
the time of our visit tlie marking had been completed. Since the number and diameters 
of the trees which were to be felled were recorded in printed directions, which served 
as a basis for the sale, the marking and measuring had to be done very accuratel3\ 
Subsequent variations in the formation of the seeding stage, such as sometimes seem 
desirable, are not permitted. 

In making the seed cutting about one-third of the volume of the stand is removed. 
In good 200-year-old stands this amounts to 10,000 to 11,430 cubic feet per acre. The 
cuttings following this one are yet more severe. The seed cuttings which we saw had 
7,150 to 8,575 cubic feet per acre of standing timber. In mixed stands the first trees 
to be marked for cutting are the beech which are overtopping the oak to a considerable 
extent and whose reproduction is at the same time undesirable; next those oaks which 
have poorly-formed, one-sided, faulty crowns. 

As contrasted with the light-seeded conifers especial value is placed upon imiform 
reproduc'tion. A dense reproduction is given preference over a uniform crop of seed. 
Any incidental disadvantages to the natural advance growth are not considered. Obser- 
vations made on the light requirements of young oak in most German forest regions 
prove entirely inapplicable to the sites under consideration. It is astonishing to what 
degree they are able, under favorable conditions, to endure a complete cover during 
the seeding stage. Reproduction, which for a considerable time continues to thrive 
under an almost complete cover, can be seen in stands in which no reproduction cuttings 
have been made. Later, when such advance growth has reached a height of 3.3 feet 
the thickly crowded young stems begin to die off. But they are still abundant even 
after that, so that they are depended upon for the stocking of the stand. 

The second cutting, la coupe secondaire, is ordinarily made about 3 to 5 years after 
the seed cutting. The young growth is given first consideration in deciding upon 
the exact time for this. This requires as vigorous and heavy an opening up as the 
first cutting was light. After that attention is given to distributing the income. There 
is taken out at'this cutting about half the volume of the stand. In mixed stands, what- 
ever beech are still present, they are the first to be removed. The last cutting, la 
coupe definitive ("the final cutting"), is made when it would be detrimental to the 
growth to leave the stand any longer. 

The period for natural reproduction (on such soils) is 10 years. However, when it 
is necessary to do so, reproduction can be secured in an even shorter time. Great 
freedom of management is allowable in this regard because of the favorable conditions 
for growth. The causes which under other conditions indicate a delayed reproduction 
cutting are here absent. Damage from late and early frosts is not to be feared; and 
competition with weed reproduction, which is one of the most universal and important 
factors considered in locating cutting operations, can be endured safely by the oak even 
from an age of 3, 4, or 5 years and up. The second cutting is not absolutely essential; 
it can be made earlier or later, or entirely omitted. The cuttings afforded abundant 
evidence that the young growth shows the best development in those places where the 
stand had been opened up quickly. In other forest regions also experience indicates 
a hastening of the final cut. As a general proposition a gradual reduction of the pro- 
tection afforded by the stand through a number of cuttings (in the marking of which 
due regard is given to the development of the seedhng oaks, the distribution of income, 
and the damage caused in felling) is to be preferred to a single felling. In view of the 
damage done in felling and bringing out the heavy logs, a longer wait than 10 years is, 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 473 

however, not to be recommended. It can be justified only by circumstances which lie 
within the realm of practical management and which in a discussion of general technical 
and economic i)rinciples can be left out of consideration. 

Under th(! favorable conditions of site in the forests which we are discussing artificial 
regeneration of oak stands is not even considered. Cultural operations are undertaken 
only to a very limited extent. Under the favorable conditions of site and stand found 
in central France the oak behaves just as the beech does in the best German localities 
where its reproduction likewise occurs to a sufficient degree without artificial aid. 
Wounding the ground is necessary where it has become hardened as is especially liable 
on the edges of reproduction (areas). Replanting, likewise, is only occasionally neces- 
sary. It will, however, be necessary in small patches, especially where loggers' huts 
and skid yards have been located. For that purpose 2-year-old nursery-grown seed- 
hngs are used. When the weak stems show poor growth they are fastened to sticks. 

Under certain conditions — but as far as we saw, not very frequently — the beech 
also is used for the artificial completion of the stand. It is planted as 2-year seedlings. 

Such plantings are the rule when cuttings of old oaks are made in pole stands such 
as is especially necessary in stands which are in process of conversion from a former 
coppice with standards or selection stand. Such cuttings can be very profitable finan- 
cially. In one oak pole forest which we were shown there were cut out thirty-nine old 
oaks with 67.5 cubic feet which gave a money return of .12,641. The marking of such 
a cutting is facilitated by the general custom of a preliminary marking of the trees to 
be felled. Everywhere in France there are differences of opinion as to the value of 
the oak or l)eech of the same age. That this mixture has both advantages and dis- 
advantages is a matter of common knowledge. This idea is definitely sul>stantiated 
by the French forests. Oaks are seen which continue to grow faster in height but 
which, because of the influence exerted upon them by the beech, are retarded in the 
lateral development of their crowns, and exhibit a much weaker growth than would 
be the case otherwise. On the other hand the condition of mixed stands leaves no 
room for doubt that the beech, in moderate mixture exercises a very favorable in- 
fluence upon the condition of the stand as a whole. The boles grow very clear of knots 
and the ground is rich in humus and free of weeds. Under the conditions described, 
therefore, where the oak is readily kept in the lead the plan of even-aged mixed stands 
is highly to Ije recommended. The German forest officers who formed part of our 
party were of the ojjinion that in France, where the conditions for the oak are very 
favorable, the system deserves more extensive application. 

Of other planting in general, the completing of oak stands upon poor soil with 
planted or seeded pine is effected in a manner similar to that' practiced on many 
German operations. Following the development of the two species the pine either 
persists, reduced to the role of an auxiliary species and is removed early, or it changes 
over into the dominant portion of the forest. 

The most important question of what kind of a comparison can be made between 
the French method of managing oak and the corresponding practice customary in 
Germany reduces itself to a question of, in how far, relatively, natural reproduction, 
which is there used with such excellent results, can find application under German 
conditions. In France natural reproduction is usually regarded as universal. The 
handbook of the Paris Exposition begins with the words: "In France forest silvics 
. . . has as a fundamental principle that the forest ought to reproduce itself indefi- 
nitely through its natural resources." Artificial establishing of stands is undertaken 
only in exceptional cases, notably when .the object of the management is the reforesta- 
tion of mountains, the afforesting of waste lands, to increase the timber for the agri- 
culturist, the afforestation of clearings, the introduction of species which do not occur 



474 APPENDIX 

in the stand, "the introduction of valuable species into the stands whose mixture is 
unsatisfactory." Hence, the French forest management is seen to be in that position 
to which it is assigned in the newer German literature, especially by Borggreve.* 

In the French forests which we visited, natural reproduction was doubtless the 
best method of establishing the stand. It demanded a minimum expenditure of money; 
the young growth grew in a good close stand; the maintenance of that species best 
suited to the site is assured. Even in German practice natural reproduction has, 
under corresponding conditions, been looked upon as by far the preferable method 
since the time of G. L. Hartig. But the conditions necessary for natural reproduction 
of the oak very frequently do not occur in Germany. In the first place its profitable 
application is impossible because of the fact that stands do not occur which are adapted 
to the establishing of seeding compartments. Near young stands the oak occurs 
chiefly as isolated veterans in pure beech. Stands of middle age suitable for repro- 
duction are rare in most of the larger forest regions. These are mostly beech stands 
into which the oak has been artificially introduced. Next it is to be noted that in 
Germany the chmatic conditions are far less favorable than in France, where optimum 
sites are found. The system of management applicable, therefore, would seem to be 
artificial regeneration of the stand if the oak is to be grown in sufficient quantities. 
As having a direct bearing upon the status of the question under consideration there 
may be mentioned the excellent stands of oak reproduction on the Oberforesterei (forest) 
of Eichelsdorf which were described before the Meeting of German Foresters in Darm- 
stadt (1905) by Forstmeister (Supervisor) Trautivein, who has for many years been 
manager of that forest. Sowing in strips not too far apart under the protection of the 
succeeding beech-mast is the method used in establishing the stands. In most of the 
other southern and central German forest regions also, especially in Spessart, in Nassau, 
etc., sowing is the prevailing method of reproduction.^ On the other hand, in North 
Germany natural reproduction can hardly be considered the common method. Satis- 
factory reproduction over large areas, instead of merely in groups, is not really practi- 
cable because of the scarcity of mast. 

The foregoing discussions apply, in so far as they are of general application, to other 
species as well as to the oak. For all, natural reproduction is to be recommended 
where suitable conditions of site and stand occur, and where it is desired to grow the 
species which occurs on the site. With all, however, a greater or lesser relation exists 
to the existent chemico-physical and ecological conditions. In the case of beech G. L. 
Hartig's amount of reproduction was diminished by the requirements of the conver- 
sion of the beech or the invasion of intolerant species. In the case of spruce it is im- 
practicable on many sites because of the danger from storms (windfall). In the case 
of pine the trials which have been made of natural reproduction have been very unsatis- 
factory in their results. Judging by our observations, it seems that, contrary to the 
principles set forth in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition the artificial regeneration 
of stands under French management is increasing ^ in amount and importance. It 

'^ Die Forstreinertragslehre, 1878, close of the book "Die principaliter — man ver- 
steherecht — als Kegel verlaugte naturliche Verjungung (which chiefly — it can readily be 
understood — as a rule requires natural reproduction," etc.); Die Holzzucht, 2d edition, 
p. 117, Die Naturbesamung (Natural seeding). 

^ Of course, where suitable conditions of stand and site occur (oak seed trees abund- 
ant over large areas) natural reproduction with simple artificial aid (Nachhilfe) is still 
a very satisfactory method of establishing oak. It is therefore practiced by preference 
and with good results by forest owners with broader experience, as the author has had 
opportunity of seeing on a trip made some months ago (August, 1906) through the 
Forslaml (Forest office) of Rohrbrunn and the Oberforsterei (forest) of Salmlinster. 

8 This prediction is certainly erroneous now that labor is so scarce and so costly. — 
T. S. W., Jr. 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 475 

is never safe, however, to formulate universal rules for the establishing of stands — 
on the contrary account must always be taken of the site factors. 

Care of the Stand, and Thinning. — In France due emphasis is laid upon the 
retention of the oak. The necessity for their regular and continued examination 
becomes more insistent the more beech takes part in the composition of the stand. 
In general, this is true to a greater extent in the northern and eastern parts of the 
country than in the southern and western. In mixed stands the cleaning axe should 
be applied every 4 to 5 years. The disastrous effects of too long an interval are strongly 
emphasized in the literature: "In fact a few years of neglect or oversight in this work, 
so expensive and tiresome to the force, is sufficient for irrevocably losing all the oak" 
(Boppe, Sylviculture). The hornbeam gives little trouble in mixture with the oak 
because of its slower growth; the oak is always the faster grower. Wherever this 
thrives, however, other faster-growing species come in, namely, birch {Betula, L.), 
aspen {Popidus, L.), alder (Alnus, Ehrb.), round-leaved willow (Salix caprea, L.), etc. 
At first valuable as nurse-trees and auxiliary species in effecting the closing of the stand, 
they soon become harmful. With the removal of softwoods (Weichholzer) poorly grown 
oaks are likewise disposed of. Because of the dense stands and the favorable site factors 
there is less of this work necessary here than in many German forests where the condi- 
tions for the growth of the oak as compared with those for its associates are less favor- 
able. 

As far as thinnings are concerned we are not aware of anything which would indicate 
that the methods are in any way different from those at present practiced in most of 
the German forest regions. The eclaircie par le haul (thinning in the upper story), 
which is considered typical of French management, was seen in pure stands far less 
than had been anticipated. As in Germany, it is practiced everywhere in mixed stands. 
As to the age for beginning the thinnings, the appearance of epicormic branches (branches 
gourmandes), not only upon the suppressed but also on the dominant trees, is regarded 
as an indication of crowding ("the upper story is, on the whole, too crowded"), and 
therefore enlargement of the crown space of standing trees which are too much sup- 
pressed is indicated. In general the thinnings are repeated less frequently than is con- 
sidered necessary in Germany. In the juvenile stage it is considered usual to return 
in 8 to 10 years at the most; later, the intervals are longer. "Thinnings are repeated 
at intervals of 6 to 12 years during the stages from sapling (gaulis) to large pole (haul 
perchis), that is from 12 to 20 years of age up to the size of standards. ... As 
far as we have been able to determine the actual practice corresponds to these theories 
in the literature (Boppe). In the forests of Belleme and Berce which we visited 
the working plans provided for two thinnings within a period of 24 years. This plan 
was strictly carried out. Any variation requires the approval of the conservator. 

The grade of the thinnings made in the forests under consideration can, in general, be 
designated as "moderate." The young stands of oak which we had opportunity of 
going through or of looking at were denser than we would consider desirable for the oak. 
Later on, the object will be the strengthening of the trees with good crown development 
which have been overlooked. " The thinnings should be conducted with the sole object 
hardiment (unhesitatingly) of favoring those trees which are judged to be the best, 
gi-adually giving them sufficient room for a free crown development. They begin as 
soon as the trees to be preserved have been definitely decided upon" (Boppe). In 
accordance with this direction in French silvicultural hterature the best trees in the 
60-year or older pole-wood stands shown to us, which were to be favored in the thinning, 
were marked by white streaks of paint (Fdrbstriche). Even in the older stands the cover 
is not to be appreciably interrupted. Therefore the increase in the growing space most 
desirable for the individual tree is often considerably too small. ("Care must always 



476 APPENDIX 

be taken not to break the leaf canopy.") The oaks in the understory should, for the 
most part, be widely spaced; there is no particular need of keeping them in the stand 
either for their sale value or for the benefit of the soil. "The oak cannot be expected to 
constitute both upper and lower stories at the same time." Just that much more pains 
is taken to preserve that part of the understory which is suitable for soil protection. 
The retaining of such species will, of course, be considered all the more necessary the 
milder the climate and the better the soil. For this reason it has been emphatically 
directed "to take particular pains to leave all woody undergrowth (suppressed trees, 
shrubs, etc.) which is capable of persisting in place of a lower story. This lower story 
must never be touched in making cuttings." Only when preparing for reproduction is 
the understory to be removed. 

In stands where beech occurs in the mixture the thinnings retain the character of 
cleanings from the sapUng age well up into the higher pole-wood and standard classes. 
(" During this long period the thinnings must always take the form of liberation cuttings 
if the successive crowding out of all the oaks is to be avoided.") In general, however, 
the raising of mixed stands of beech and oak of approximately the same age presents no 
difficulty if at the time of the regeneration the faster growth of the oak is encouraged. 
Owing to the climatic conditions this proposition is entirely feasible. In the northern 
part of the country the conditions are different. It has been estabHshed that here the 
beech is a faster grower than the oak at all ages. For such stands, therefore, the mixing 
of the two species by distinct groups, is directed. ("These difficulties are overcome by 
practicing regeneration in compartments in which each species, maintained in a pure 
stand . . . receives proper care throughout its entire life.") In France an inten- 
tional underwood, through which the needs and requirements of both species can best 
be met, is seldom formed. The special cases mentioned of the underplanting of open 
spaces in the stand are not, in our estimation, to be looked upon as examples of forming 
an underwood. This also is denounced in the literature. At least Boppe refers to the 
Bavarian (Spessart and the Palatinate) system of forming an underwood as a local 
peculiarity. 

The earlier operations of thinnings can best be understood from the present condition 
of neighboring older stands. An examination of these leaves no room for doubt that in 
France as in most German States thinnings have not been conducted in strict accordance 
with the needs of the management. The formation of stands as described above — 
with a volume of 11,430 to 14,290 cubic feet per acre, a clear length of 65 feet and a 
diameter of 20 inches — was effected by moderate thinnings. 

HIGH FOREST REGULATION^ 

As admirably as the management of the French State and administered forests is ex- 
hibited in everything which relates to the technical side of the subject (establishment and 
care of stands, thinnings, feUing operations, etc.) the conditions of the forest organiza- 
tion and the regulation of revenue will meet with but little favor in the eyes of the Ger- 
man visitor. We did not, on the present trip, see any operations from which the methods 
of regulating income and the form it should take could be judged. But the principles 
of the forest regulation were so evident in the condition of the stands and from the 
economic maps that we could get an idea of them even without the working plans of the 
general form of those which may be seen for the State forests. The most important 
consideration characteristic of the French forest regulation has to do with the local estab- 
lishment of the working groups and the choosing of the places where cuttings are to be 
made, with which there must at the same time be combined an establishment of the 
rotation period. 

' ForstwisseaschaftUches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 530-47. 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 477 

Local Establishment of Working Groups. — The French State and State-admin- 
istered forests are divided into "aeries" (worlcing groups). These are adjacent areas 
with Uke markets and requirements for continued management, which frequently corre- 
spond to Schutzbezirken (triages) (protection forests). They are somewhat similar to 
the Prussian Bloken. "By series or working group is understood a portion of the forest 
which is designated to be placed under a special working plan * in accordance with the 
provisions of which it will form a series of annual cuttings." There is a further division 
into sections which correspond somewhat to the German Belriebsklassen (working units). 
"By section is understood a portion of the forest which is distinguished from the rest of 
the forest (surplus) by the method of management (taillis, fulaie reguliere, futaie jardinee, 
etc., coppice, even-aged high forest, selection high forest, etc.)." The working units 
are subdivided into "affectations" which are the same as our Periodenfldchen (periodic 
blocks). In the forest of Belleme which we visited there had been established eight 
periodic blocks of 25 years. 

In locating the working units the French aim has been, as far as practicable, to so 
place the affectations that they will form an uninterrupted whole, and not be separated 
from one another by bodies of other periodic blocks. The idea of consolidating the areas 
of periodic blocks has been developed in France probably to a greater extent than in any 
other coimtry. That there are efforts to effect this is indicated by L. Tassy, conservateur 
de forets (conservator of forests). It is very characteristic of the French system of 
management, and we will therefore translate verbatim. The location of age-classes and 
felling scries is given by Tassy ' as follows: 

"1. From the viewpoint of the progress of the cuttings in that periodic block. 

"2. From the viewpoint of the relative position of the periodic blocks. 

"While the progress of the cuttings in each periodic block should be in accordance 
with the principles of cutting series, it is at the same time desirable that the felling areas 
have a regular form so that they shall present the narrower side to the most violent 
winds, so that they may l)e traversed and bounded by rides but especially that they may 
form separate and distinct blocks. I especially recommend that a periodic block never 
be broken up unless there are very especial reasons (motifs majeurs) for it. The continuity 
(contaquite) of the several compartments constituting a periodic block is e.xpedient, not 
alone for the orderly regulation of cutting series, but also from the standpoint of the 
economic results of the working plan." 

The regulation of the French State forests is conducted in accordance with the prin- 
ciples here set down. The periodic blocks are systematically grouped on the maps and 
in the field. It is evident, however, that it is frequently utterly impossible to adhere 
strictly to the system of such continuous periodic block without a great sacrifice of growth 
and a decided variation from the time of maturity. To avoid serious loss in this latter 
regard the management often seems to leave unused younger stands within the periodic 
block in the several periodic blocks. On the other hand, however, stands of a later 
periodic block will, under certain conditions, be brought to reproduction. In the 
high oak forests which we saw there were seed and removal cuttings in periodic blocks 
1 and 2. 

The importance to the management in all the larger adjacent forests as to whether and 
how far the age classes shall be considered in making divisions for the regulation of in- 
come is not to be minimized. Such a grouping of periodic blocks as described by Tassy 
and actually practiced in France results in too extensive reproduction cuttings and too 
great areas of the same age class. Its practice will result in conditions similar to those 
formerly frequent in most of the German forests. In virgin forests similar stands are 

^ L. Tassy, Etudes sur V amenagement des forets (Studies on the Organization of 
Forests), p. 385. 

9 Tassy is rather out of date. Dr. Martin should have consulted Huffel. 



478 APPENDIX 

always formed under like conditions of site. G. L. Hartig '" himself noted this tendency. 
The areas of natural reproduction which he established have, because of the infrequency 
of seed years combined with a lack of systematic distribution, often resulted in extensive 
even-aged stands. The first result of increasing artificial regeneration has been a clear- 
cut systematic arrangement of stands according to species and age classes. 

As is well known, the opposite system to the French plan with its establishing of age 
classes, is practiced in the kingdom of Saxony. The formation of short cutting series 
has for a long time been a characteristic feature of the Saxon management. Judeich, in 
his writings, emphasized its superiority; the establishment of Saxon forest organization 
put it into practice. To promote the systematic arrangement of the working groups 
there were deliberately made severance cuttings and fellings which were intended to 
make possible the independent management of areas located near one another. In the 
boundaries of surveying, and regulating the Austrian State and institution (Fond-) 
forests, also the establishing of short cutting series is emphasized. 

Which, then, of the two opposed systems is right, or, since both have weaknesses, the 
better? In Germany the French system has rarely been developed to such an extent 
as the visitor to the French forests finds it. In the main the degree of maturity is given 
first consideration in the location of the cutting areas. The strict regard for the maturity 
leads to the maintenance of the existing form of the stand . The beginning of maturity, 
however, and, to a yet greater extent, the actual time of overmaturity of individual 
stands allow of more or less extension. Many stands could, without seriously interfer- 
ing with the economic results, be changed one or two periods one side or the other. A 
fixed policy, therefore, of separating or combining stands at the time of regeneration is 
inapplicable even in German practice. 

If we investigate the rules for establishing stands which must, in the direction proposed, 
be considered the most weighty the French system does not give a very favorable im- 
pression. There are always certain dangers connected with the grouping of even-aged 
stands, in coniferous forests at least. Many insects, the Maybug (Maikdfer) in par- 
ticular, appear in greater numbers. The increased fire danger is yet more prominent. 
The relation of the stands to storms must, however, be regarded as the fundamental 
and general basis for deciding the proposed question of retaining the stands. And even 
in this respect we can concede no superiority to the French system, at least not when 
natural reproduction is relied upon, which, as the Handbook of the Exposition empha- 
sizes, is regarded as the rule in France. No other form of silvicultural management is 
so destructively visited by storms as large symmetrically arranged reproduction cuttings. 
The danger from storms is especially great in the case of old stands, as in the oak and fir 
stands of the French State forests in which it is no longer possible to strengthen the trees 
through reproduction cuttings, and to accustom them to a subsequent open position. As 
a matter ^of fact damage by storm has recently occurred to a very considerable extent in 
forests managed in accordance with the French method of regulating forest organization. 
The wind-breakage in oak reproduction cuttings under the mild conditions of the Loire 
plains has already been mentioned. In the fir stands in the Vosges such severe storm 
damage has occurred of late that many forest owners are no longer willing to concede 
the fir any superiority over the spruce as far as resistance to wind throw is concerned. 

When we come to consider the employment of clear cutting there is rather more to be 
said in favor of the French system. If the principal face presented to the prevailing 

^^ In the Instruktion of 1819, in which (p. 20) we find: "Since the plan for the artificial 
regulation of forests must be so arranged so that the compartments decided upon for 
every periodic block shall close on one another as fast as possible, it is necessary 
{Da der Plan zur kunftigen Bewirlschaftung des Forstes so eingerichtet werden 
musz, dasz die filr jede Periode zum abtrieb bestimmten Jagen soviel wie moglich sich 
einander schlieszen, so musz . . . )." 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 479 

storms were equally well protected in the case of large and small cuttings, differences in 
the conduct of the storm which are due to other causes would be apparent. In the case 
of a large number of small cuttings there are formed more openings in the stand in which 
a storm can attack. However, there are many other serious results of larger cuttings 
which become evident by trial. Many insects appear in destructive numbers. The 
damage from weeds, frost, and heat is greater the larger the cuttings. For tender species 
which grow slowly in the juvenile stage it is an acknowledged principle of management 
to avoid large clear cuttings. 

The method of managing the Saxon State forests seems much jjetter in this regard. 
It has the great advantage that the cuttings are kept small and gradually arranged to- 
gether in rows. The young growth has the benefit of the protection from the standing 
trees. In relation to market conditions, also, and other factors which must be taken 
into consideration in practical management, the method of small cuttings with the 
possibihty of a change in the manner of utilization is a desideratum. As far as storms 
are concerned the superiority claimed for the Saxon method by its advocates is not to 
be accepted without qualification. If the direction is known from which destructive 
storms are to be expected in the future it is possible to protect the stand by means 
of the methods of felling and making severance cuttings which are peculiar to the Saxon 
system. But this cannot be determined. Storm statistics " recently published show 
that even easterly storms have frequently done considerable damage. If, in spite of 
this fact, future efforts in forest management shall still be directed to protecting against 
westerly storms as far as possible, the chance of damage by storms coming from the 
opposite direction must also be reckoned with. Openings made in the stand by sever- 
ance cuttings and fellings for the strengthening of borders exposed to western winds 
would, however, appear hazardous. The undesirable consequences which may be 
bound up with a system of severance cuttings are truly pointed out by the advocates 
of the Saxon method of managing State forests. Oberforster (Supervisor) August a 
few years ago wrote an article on the effect of southeast storms in the Olbernhau Revier 
(range) (Erzgebirge). He made the comment that: "The damage (which the south- 
east storms have caused) would not be so great if it were not for the fact that on the 
Olbernhau Revier one of the chief objects of the Saxon method of forest management, 
the creation of a large number of short cutting series, had been practically attained. 
Over large areas cuttings have been made in every division (Abteilung) within a decade; 
and as desirable as these are for establishing regeneration areas, for replanting, etc., yet 
in this case many reproduction cuttings begun at the eastern side have proved dis- 
astrous." The relation that tearing the stand to pieces bears to damage by storms can- 
not be more strikingly presented. It is to be added, however, that the damage caused 
by storm under the Saxon management will never have such great dimensions as is the 
case under the French method of making cuttings. Any careful investigation will 
substantiate this. Communications from Saxony have often confessed to damage from 
storms. But their effects are on a smaller scale than in the Vosges and other forest 
regions with extensive homogeneous areas of veteran forest. The favorable results of 
Saxon management are not to be accounted for by the physiological characteristics of 
the species — in Saxony the non-storm-resisting spruce predominates — but by the 
conditions of growth secured by the forest organization. 

If the foregoing arguments are, in the main, susceptible of proof, yet it must not be 
forgotten that in this, as in most other forest regions, the extremes are necessarily the 
best methods. The proper economic management is often to be found nearer the mean. 
The French method of grouping must be unconditionally discarded. But even in regard 
to too strict a separation of age classes it is worth while making the observations men- 

" Bargmann, Allgem. " Forst- and Jagdzeitung, 1904, p. 84. 



480 APPENDIX 

tioned. The most essential definite problems of practice have to do with establishing 
the universal fundamentals through the application of which there will be effected a 
greater safety of the system from damage by storms. These rest, first of all, upon the 
way in which the forest is divided up for management. In mountainous regions, with 
spruce predominating, where the sequence of the cuttings is of the greatest importance, 
divisions must be based on the topography. Natural features — not only main ridges 
and valleys, but also the secondary ridges where the slopes change their direction — 
afford the best boundaries for the fixed working division {Wirtschaftsfiguren) , and for the 
cutting series. In many cases cuttings have to progress away from them in both direc- 
tions. In broken {kiipiert) topography the extension of uniform working groups will 
often be definitely prescribed by the relations of the topographic features. In level 
country a good network of rides with their principal direction northeast — southwest or 
east west has the same effect. A good distribution not only facilitates the breaking up 
of larger areas but also constitutes the best framework for similar grouping into manage- 
able working areas. The second method of reducing the danger consists of the estab- 
lishing of sufficiently broad division lines. Only rides of sufficient width are suitable for 
forming belts which shall be sufficient for protecting the stands against storm. It 
should be noted in this connection that the extension of these increases the area of un- 
productive soil. However, it must be remembered that many of these will be changed 
to the character of roads, and some, at least, of the rest used for dragging up and piling 
the wood. Broad rides serve, also, as a means of protection, especially for the preven- 
tion and fighting of fires. For feeding grounds for game, also, and for the raising of 
grass and straw for the use of those who work in the woods, rides are valuable only when 
of sufficient breadth. 

Silvicultural measures are another instrument of forest organization or regulation 
which can be used for placing the stand upon a firm basis. All injuries due to the mani- 
festations of inanimate nature will be aggravated by unsymmetrically developed roots 
and twigs, as well as by long clear length. Everything which works for a symmetrical 
development of the roots and against a long clear length renders the stands more capable 
of resisting storms and their consequences. Among these may be mentioned the selec- 
tion of good individuals for planting, the restoring of regular spacing, timely decision 
upon severer thinnings, and careful closing of the borders of the stand. By the employ- 
ment of such measures there will be a far greater certainty of the stands surviving than 
there can ever be under the French system of grouping age classes together. 

Determination of the Cut, and the Rotation Period. — The most general and 
important problem of working plans is the determination of the yield. The basis for 
this has an intimate connection with studies of maturity which are always of significance 
in choosing the type of management and the direction it shall take. Dependent upon it, 
also, is the amount of forest capital which is regarded as normal and which it is desired 
to establish. No other subject is of more importance for the condition of the French 
State forest policy and the directions it will take. 

In the forests of Belleme and Berce the rotation period has been fixed at 200 years. 
Eight periodic blocks of 25 years each have been formed. The actual utilization amounts 
in the 6,000-acre forest of Belleme to 173,050 to 282,525 cubic feet in all, an average 
of 28.6 and 46.0 cubic feet, respectively, per acre. This on good soil and with the 
good condition of, the stands, which were about 120 feet high, is a very conservative 
cut, far short of the annual increment. The effects of this exceedingly conservative 
management applied for long periods are clearly evidenced in the condition of the stands. 
The trees are full-boled and of great cubic contents. The thinnings, however, are far 
more moderate than is necessary with the conditions of growth which have been de- 
scribed (good soil and mild climate with a long vegetative period). 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 481 

No basis for the rotation period in the forest under discussion has been described by 
the advocates of the French State forest pohcy, at least not definitely enough to be 
repeated here. We can get an idea of it only from the condition of the stand and the 
information given in the literature. Tassy/^ discusses the determination of the cutting 
age {exploitabilile) in the following words: "The volume of the wood which has been 
produced, its economic value (utilite), its sale value {valeur venule), and the ratio between 
its value and that of the capital from which it comes are the various factors which, 
individually or collectively, must be borne in mind if it is desired to make the greatest 
profit from the management of the forest. These several factors correspond to four 
objects of management: First, management for the greatest volume production; second, 
that for the highest technical value; third, that for the greatest money revenue; fourth, 
that for the largest interest on the investment." As is everywhere the case, the rotation 
periods in the French forest management, as well, are dependent upon the progress of 
volume and value increment and the interest paid on the forest capital. The question 
of rotation periods in France cannot be understood and discussed further without 
entering into discussion of the peculiar conditions whose influence upon the condition 
of the forest is nowhere more pronounced than here (a fact which is not brought out 
in the foregoing quotation). 

(a) VOLUME INCREMENT 

This is everywhere a fundamental determining factor of the length of the rotation 
period. G. L. Hartig's teaching, that upon given areas there is always a maximum 
increment which should be produced, may always be accepted as essentially correct. 
Even if the value of the product and the interest paid on the capital be taken into 
consideration yet the volume increment is still an essential determining factor. If 
it be reduced the volume and value of the product from which revenue is obtained will 
likewise both suffer a diminution. 

The mean increment {accroissement moyen) is looked upon as that which shall decide 
the age of maturity under the French system of forest management. "The rotation 
period giving the greatest volume production (exploitabilite absolue) is indicated by 
the age at which the greatest mean increment is produced." According to that the 
proper rotation age occurs in that period when the current increment is falling off. It 
corresponds to that age when the current increment is equal to the mean increment. 

We have but little definite information which bears upon the problem of current incre- 
ment or upon the principles of mean increment. In the forest region of Belleme and 
Berce exact studies were available chiefly for a 200-year-old oak stand with an admix- 
ture of a few beeches and a ground cover of young beech, giving its increment and 
previous utilization. The number of trees per hectare amounted to 198 (80 per acre), 
the volume of wood larger than 28 inches at the small end (Derbholz) 13,875 cubic feet 
per acre. The actual utilization is given as 6,200 cubic feet per acre, the total possible 
as 20,080 cubic feet per acre. According to this the mean increment amounts to 96 
cubic feet per acre. As a matter of fact the actual volume production was greater 
because during the 200-year period it is very likely that wood was utilized of which 
partial or no accounts were kept. 

The current increment in stands more than 200 years old has doubtless heretofore 
not been determined because of the falling off in growth occurring at this time. The 
principal cause of this falling off is evidently the abundant flower- and seed-production. 
Otherwise the plant foods of the soil are completely utilized by the roots, and the air 
space by the crowns; hence any very great reduction in that increment which corre- 
sponds to the site is not to be expected. This supposition is substantiated by studies 

12 1, c. Deuxieme etude: de V exploitabilite (Second article: on the age of maturity). 



482 APPENDIX 

made on test trees from time to time during the course of our trip. These indicate 
that for a dominant tree with annual rings 0.04 inch in breadth there is an annual 
increment of 0.9. According to this the current annual increment at present amounts 
to 130 cubic feet per acre and if that proportion holds true for only three-quarters the 
volume of the stand — ■ the dominant trees — to (in round numbers) 100 cubic feet 
per acre. 

This is almost the same as that which is determined from complete volume tables 
and yield statistics as the mean annual increment. The two kinds of increment are 
seen — contrary to the commonly accepted belief — at the age of 200 years to be at the 
point of crossing and agreement. 

If the foregoing propositions^cannot, because of the lack of sufficient data, be definitely 
proven, yet enough observations have been made to justify the conclusion that the 
current annual increment of the oak under the existing conditions of the site and the 
indicated character of the stands exhibits a uniform decline. The falling off in current 
annual increment has taken place very gradually; far more gradually than most yield 
tables indicate for German forests, where the oak is much less crowded in the older age 
classes. 1' 

To a yet greater extent is this evident in the case of mean annual increment. This, 
in the case above cited, has not changed appreciably for a full century. That sort of 
maturity known as exploitabilite absolue gives entirely too indefinite results, in that 
account; it may be placed at as early an age as 80 years or as late as 200. 

(b) QUALITY INCREMENT 

Of greater importance than the volume increment as a determining factor of the 
age of maturity is the value increment. The French management shows conclusively 
that in their own forests especial importance is attached to the production of good quality 
of product. The less private individuals are inclined to grow heavy timber, the more 
does the State find itself confronted with the necessity of producing this economically 
indispensable product. The best way to get an idea of the progressive increase in value 
is to study the average prices paid for wood where the trees of varying size are valued 
separately. The approximate selling price of trees of various girths are as follows: 

Trees of 200 cm. circumference (65 cm. diameter), 65 francs per cu. m." 

Trees of 100-200 cm. circumference (33-36 cm. diameter), 45 francs per cu. m. 

Trees under 100 cm. circumference (under 33 cm. diameter), 30 francs per cu. m. 

These classes are too indefinite to afford any precise idea of the value increment. 
They show, however, that the increase in value bears a direct relation to the increase 
in size. Trees whose diameter increases from 20 to 24 inches increase in value about 
40 per cent. With annual rings 0.05 inch in width about 35 years are required to 
produce a diameter increment of 3.9 inches. Hence the yearly increase in value can 
be placed at a good 1 per cent. 

(c) THE INTEREST PAID ON THE GROWING STOCK 

It is not really possible to fix the length of the rotation period intelligently without 
a study of the economic principles upon which the practice is based. The kernel of 

^^ According to Schwappach's yield tables : 
On first quality site at 

the age of 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 

The current annual in- ] Wood more than 

crement amounts to . . 10.2 9.2 6.8 5.2 4.6 3.8 3.4 2.8 m.^ 7 cm. in diameter 
The mean annual incre- [at the small end 

ment 4.6 5.9 6.3 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.5 5.3 m.") (Derbholz) 

"26-inch trees, $12.55; 13-26-inch trees, $8.70; under 13-inch trees, $5.80. 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 483 

this in its practical bearing is expressed in the questions, of whether and how high a 
rate of interest should be expected on the forest capital invested. This question is, 
indeed, thoroughly discussed in the French literature. Its^treatment is of particular 
interest to the German forest owner, who is occupied with the theory of net income. 
A very clear discussion of the theoretical and practical problems and objects of the 
same is given by Tassy, /. c. He lays special emphasis on the nature of forest capital, 
offers explanations of the differences which exist in the relation of revenue to value of 
the wood in comparison with other branches of domestic economy, and advances the 
following propositions: "The rotation period which gives the greatest interest on the 
investment is almost always shorter than that which corresponds to the greatest mean 
annual increment. The less valuable the species concerned and the less likeHhood there 
is of its increasing in technical value and in price as it grows older, the earlier does 
this age occur. The lower the rate of interest the more closely does the rotation yield- 
ing the greatest interest correspond to the rotation which produces the most valuable 
product." As opposed to this idea, however, it should be noted that not the greatest, 
but a suitable interest on the forest working capital is demanded by the German advo- 
cates of the theory of net returns. 

From these three propositions are drawn definite policies for economic management 
(1. c). Among these it is of special interest to note that by proper thinning the age 
of maturity is advanced while at the same time the production of the stands is increased, 
and that the capital, upon which the income is dependent, is diminished by the same. 
The increasing value of timbers justifies more intensive utilization. The question of 
underwood and the increased length of rotation are justified by that fact. The in- 
fluence of the rate of interest is exhibited in the fact that a reduction of it results 
in a longer financial rotation in such a way, however, that the rotation period corre- 
sponding to the highest mean value increment, and that corresponding to the greatest 
net revenue are equal only when the rate of interest is equal to zero. 

In spite of the simplicity and clarity of the arguments whose chief points have been 
rehearsed, no adequate basis can be derived from the literature cited, for the rotation 
period which can be considered correct for a given forest region and given species. 
The examples cited rest mainly upon hypothetical suppositions; they give very in- 
definite results. The first of these three propositions, namely, that the rotation corre- 
sponding to the maximum yield culminates just before the culmination of the mean 
annual increment, allows very wide variation. For the maximum mean annual incre- 
ment occurs, as has been mentioned under (a) not at any one definite age, but somewhere 
within a long period comprising or exceeding an entire century. 

More definite inferences as to the rotation period for the French State forests can be 
drawn from the actual condition of the forests themselves than from the literature. 
The oak stands under consideration, in the forests of Belleme and Berce as well as the 
stands of fir in the Vosges, can serve as admirable examples from which to deduce more 
definite economic principles. Both are typical of the kind of stand to which a consistent 
observance of the principles of the greatest net forest revenue or of the greatest mean 
value increment will lead; moderate degree of thinning, dense stocking, long rotation 
period. The volume and value resulting from this system are of a definite amount. 
Restricted to the revenue at maturity the mean value increment of the stands men- 
tioned, which consists of 34,255 cubic feet valued at 40 francs ($7.70), amounts to 
39,000 -^ 210 = (in round numbers) 180 francs per hectare ^;$14 per acre); this is one 
of the highest which has hitherto resulted under management anywhere, or been ex- 
tensively described. The figures given above, however, indicate that, in spite of this, 
the mean value increment has not yet attained its maximum. Even when the annual 
volume increment amounts to only 0.5 per cent, and the annual increase in value like- 



484 APPENDIX 

wise to only 0.5 per cent the stands, if they remain uncut, increase in value in a larger 

39 000 
ratio than is indicated by the increase in age. The numerator of the fraction ' , 

which represents the mean annual value increment, at that per cent increases in the 
ratio of 100 to 101, while the denomination becomes larger only in the ratio of 210 to 211. 
From the standpoint of the greatest net forest revenue the stands under consideration 
have been properly managed; if the standard for their management, however, is to be 
the greatest mean value increment, they should not be cut yet but should be retained 
as capital until the per cent of volume and value increments correspond approximately 
to the ratio between the annual increase in age and the present age. 

Of course, as soon as it is demanded in forestry that the remaining growing stock shall 
yield interest, even at only a moderate per cent, the factors concerned in the economical 
production of stands are entirely changed. From the standpoint of the theory of net 
profits on the land which this suggestion is equivalent to, it would have been impossible 
to grow such stands as the mature oak we are discussing, or even the French fir stands in 
the Vosges. Accurate citations as to the time and severity of thinnings, the amount of 
growing stock, and the length of the rotation cannot be made without detailed computa- 
tions and voluminous material. The opinion presented can, however, readily be proved 
as one of general acceptance. 

In connection with the determination of the results of applying the theory of net in- 
come to oak high forest with long rotation period it should be mentioned that for this 
only moderate rates of interest (2.5 to 3 per cent) are to be used. It should be borne in 
mind, in addition, that under permanent management, the forest and its contained 
growing stock constitute a uniform entity. A part of the growing stock is also embraced 
within the younger and the middle-aged stands ; hence the rate of interest on the growing 
stock may be sufficient even though that of the oldest age classes of a given working 
unit have fallen below that required on the entire capital. But even by applying this 
conservative supposition the stands under discussion would be unable to satisfy the 
demands for payment of interest. In contrast to management for the greatest mean 
value increment which would leave those stands to grow for a yet longer period, the 
theory of net income from the land requires that they be thinned and opened up earlier 
and more heavily. The number of trees per hectare must be reduced to a greater extent 
in the course of gradual thinnings so that at the age of 200 years only about half (40 
instead of 80 per acre) shall be present. As a result of such management the working 
capital will be diminished, the increment of individual trees is increased, and the interest 
influenced favorably by both. Under such conditions and with the favorable site 
factors present the miscellaneous stock, upon the production of which such importance is 
rightly attached in administering the French State forests, could be raised with rotation 
periods of 160 to 180 years. 

(d) OWNERSHIP OP THE LAND 

The conditions of property ownership have hitherto had a great influence in France 
in deciding upon the age of maturity and the characteristic form of forest which shall be 
regarded as normal and whose establishment shall be sought. Nowhere are the differ- 
ences in the character of the forest, according to the ownership of the land, more clearly 
emphasized than in France. Even in the literature this is stated definitely, though not 
without exaggeration. Tassy says in reference to this: "It is not to be hoped that pri- 
vate owners will ever find it to their interests to manage their forests as high forest. For 
in such a case not only will the rate of interest on the money fall off considerably, but 
which are conditions far more difficult of attainment, the impossibility of predicting 
future conditions, immediate needs, the uncertainty of the immediate future, would all 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 485 

have to cease to play a role in human activities." This general conception was discussed 
more in detail in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition where it is said: "The private 
owner seldom manages broadleaves (Angiosperms) as high forest. They prefer coppice 
and coppice with standards with short rotation periods. The conifers (Gymnosperms) 
they use as soon as they seem available, without letting them reach that size which 
qualifies them as valuable economic species." The actual condition of the forests con- 
firms these descriptions in the literature. It is also granted that as a rule the State is 
different in the matter of management, that other working systems are chosen, and 
that other rotation periods are employed, than is true for the private individuals. In 
addition to the Government's high forests, characterized by large capital and long rota- 
tion periods, there are the communal coppice with standards stands, characterized by a 
small stock of overwood, and the extensive sprout lands of private owners. 

The question as to what influence the conditions of ownership exercise upon the condi- 
tion and management of forests is of considerable general importance. While perhaps 
to a lesser extent than in France, similar differences are found in all countries, even in 
the German forest regions. Adjoining the great areas of most of the German State 
forests in mountainous regions (Harz Mountains, Thuringian forests, Spessart, etc.), 
and on the plains, there are often found poor forests, owned by peasants, upon essentially 
similar soil. The causes of these differences are to be found partly in poor management. 
By the removal of too much of the forest litter, irregular cutting, deficient superintend- 
ence, the demands for a good condition of the forest are by no means met. The destruc- 
tion of forests in nearly all countries is directly traceable to private ownership. But 
even under good management (which must be assumed if questions of principles are to 
be discussed) there are notable differences dependent upon the conditions of ownership. 
Government forests are always more conservatively managed than those belonging to 
private owners. 

The recognition that there are differences depending upon the conditions of ownership, 
which make themselves felt in the condition of forests and their management, has led to 
the assumption that there are in forestry — just as in business in general — two different 
systems of management dependent upon the ownership of property, a system for private 
owners which leads to short rotation periods and extensive management, and a system 
for public owners which is characterized by long rotation periods and large forest capital. 
Not merely the advocates of extreme socialism have inscribed upon their banners the 
contrast between private and cooperative management, but champions, also, of a more 
moderate economic course have had recourse to the double system mentioned, in ex- 
plaining the differences in the condition of forests which we are discussing, and in char- 
acterizing the resulting problems of future management. 

Diverse, however, as are the forest conditions and the objects of organization in 
the State and private forests that is no reason for trying to establish different systems 
of management. The causes of this diversity must be sought in other conditions. 
They are to be found in forest history than which the history of no other branch of eco- 
nomics has more far-reaching results. The distance of the forest from the consumer is 
another guiding factor. The forests which are in the possession of the State are prefer- 
ably the more remote forests, the forests located at the interior of large wooded areas of 
mountain and plain. The greater the distance from the market, the longer does the 
rotation period become. The financial conditions, also, have an influence upon the rota- 
tion period. Those owners, alone, are in a position to manage their forests on a long 
rotation (ignoring the interest), who have sufficient means, who are independent of the 
immediate realization of income from the capital, and who have a permanent interest 
in the condition of the forest. No other owners fulfill these requirements to so great an 
extent as the State. Finally, it must be taken into consideration that the State has, 



486 APPENDIX 

besides its efficiency as a manager, also to take into consideration problems of political 
economy, not only in regard to production, but also economic relations. It is desirable 
that it should exert a favorable influence in that direction upon all the forests of the 
country. But it stands to reason, and is in accord with the status of legislation in all 
countries, that this shall be most emphatically done in its own forests. 

Even in time to come there will still be differences of the kind mentioned — not merely 
in forest management but also in economic life in general. Even in future times the 
State forests will, as a rule, be more conservatively managed than most private forests. 
It is not an inevitable result of this, however, that under State or communal management 
a portion of the cost of production cannot be taken into account — which is the present 
point of difference in economic principles. Forest owners (State, community, etc.), 
even if they favor communal interests, need not, as the champions of all socialistic 
tendencies demanded, renounce the interest on a portion of the capital invested {Pro- 
duktionsgrundlagen) . On the contrary, the most general rule applicable to all kinds of 
forest ownership demands that in regulating management all costs of production in 
labor, capital, and land must be reckoned at their full value. But there could well be 
differences in the cost of production depending on the character of the forest ownership, 
resulting from variations in the size of the growing stock and the rate of interest charged. 
An analogous condition exists in agriculture. Indeed, the inter-relationships of labor, 
capital, and land vary according to the character of the ownership even if the objects of 
management be identical. The greater conservatism which characterizes State forest 
management cannot, however, be regarded as an indication of self-sacrifice on the part 
of the treasury department or of a readiness to give up claim to a part of the investment. 
The State does not need to give up all claims to the interest on the capital and on the 
value of the land in the interests of either present or future generations. The advocates 
of management for financial returns may expect, rather, that the woods which the com- 
ing political economy needs most urgently will best be paid for on the basis of their cost 
of production with which must be included the discounted value of the cost of cultiva- 
tion, and the interest on the investment. In that case it is demanded of State manage- 
ment, however, that the rotation period shall not be longer than is required, in accordance 
with silvicultural principles, for the production of that particular kind of product which 
constitutes the object of the management. The French forest management which, 
because of its moderate thinnings and long rotation period, is characterized by very 
small interest on the investment, is susceptible of radical improvement along just these 
lines. 

As opposed to the demand for an acceleration of production and a shortening of the 
rotation period which must be demanded of the French management of State forests, 
intelligent private owners have of late seen fit to change their hitherto extensive manage- 
ment to a more intensive system, and to lengthen their rotation periods. This is the 
direct result of the market conditions for the various grades of product. 

The prices of the smaller products (twigs, bark) have declined because of the competi- 
tion by charcoal and other substitutes, while those of the higher grade lumber have risen 
not only actually, but relatively, in comparison with other commodities. Furthermore, 
as was evident from the great number of the cross sections exhibited at the Paris Exposi- 
tion, it has become, a matter of common knowledge in France that properly conducted 
thinnings and openings exercise a very favorable influence upon the progress of diameter 
increment, upon which the rotation period is dependent. Mention is made, also, in the 
Handbook of the Paris Exposition of the changes wrought by this in the viewpoint of 
private owners, in the following words: "A change is imminent in the conditions which 
have hitherto existed (profitableness of the coppice system, and of short rotations). The 
rise in wages and the absence of a market forcharcoal have reduced the value of coppice 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 487 

stands. Private owners are finding themselves forced to lengthen the rotation periods 
in the same. ... At the same time the declining rate of interest and the increase 
in the price of wood are leading forest owners, to a greater and greater extent, to increase 
the amount of capital invested in forests and to defer the utilization of the stands until a 
more advanced age." 

As in France, so in many German forest regions, we find factors which determine the 
sort of management which shall be practiced by the Government and by others. Even 
here many private owners may, in view of the present conditions and future possibilities, 
well increase the length of their rotations. Even for private management the rule holds 
good that those products must be grown which best meet the requirements of economic 
conditions. That this demand frequently is not met, that many private forests are left 
unutilized and reverted to waste lands — evident from the poor, careless management 
and unsuitable working units ("dwarf management" (Zwergbetriebe)) — is the cause of 
the financial position of many forest estates. Very often private owners are not in a 
position to maintain their resources in the unavailable form of standing forest capital, 
because they need them for very definite purposes; they have to have it in a more 
readily available form and for that reason often clean-cut the stands even when the 
increment in volume and value would be greater than the interest on the readily avail- 
able capital. For leading the way toward better conditions in this regard it is desirable 
that renting of forests be facilitated in a manner similar to the measures of the German 
Forestry Association {Deutscher Forstverein) . 

From what has been said it can be seen that it is desirable at present in France, and 
in other countries as well, that the systems of management in private and in State forests 
be brought into closer accord. The economic laws and principles upon which manage- 
ment depends are restricted neither to State nor to private forests, but are of universal 
application. For this reason, also, the claim that there are opposed principles of manage- 
ment — a private and a social — is not to be accepted absolutely, in spite of the great 
influence upon management of consideration for the community and for the future. As 
a matter of fact they are not sustained under the economic conditions which, hypothetic- 
ally, they favor. 

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS, AND SIMPLE COPPICE is 

Coppice with Standards. — Coppice with standards is a system of management 
found in almost every part of France. It is most strongly advocated for the communal 
forests. According to the statistics cited i" the State forests comprise 269,707 hectares 
(666,465 acres) of coppice with standards which equals 26 per cent of the entire forest 
area; the communal forests 936,305 hectares (2,313,694 acres), 49 per cent. Since the 
French forests of coppice with standards comprise only a little overwood, and the sprout 
lands are stocked mainly with reserved standards, it is not always possible to draw a 
sharp distinction between the two. Both systems belong to the regime du taillis which 
is characterized by sprout reproduction as distinct from the regime de la futaie where 
reproduction is secured from seeds. Within the same regime further distinctions are 
made according to the method of handling (mode de traitment) . In the case of coppice 
with standards the group system {mode de eclaircies) is looked upon as different from 
the selection system {mode de jardinage). Similar distinctions are made within the 
regivie du taillis: 

Le taillis simple, "exploite entierement d hlanc etoc ou sans autres reserves que des baliv- 

15 "Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt," 1908, pp. 655-65. 

1" In the Handbook of the Exposition of 1900. The figures in the statistique forestiere 
of 1870 differ considerably because in the interval extensive changes have occurred. 



488 APPENDIX 

eaux de I'age qui seront abbattus a la revolution suivante" (coppice "cut entirely, or with- 
out other reserves than of an age which will be felled at the next cutting"). 

Le taillis compose ou taillis sous futaie "dans lequel les baliveaux reserves sent destines a 
Tester sur pied pendant au moins trois revolutions" (coppice with standards, in which the 
reserved trees are intended to remain standing for at least three rotations). (Definitions 
from the official Statistique forestiere, Forest Statistics.) 

Since, however, no binding definitions can be apphed to the question of reserving 
standards in private forests, essential variations occur in practice. 

The pecuharity of the coppice with standards system, consisting of the juxtaposition 
of isolated uneven-aged seedhngs and even-aged sprouts, has persisted much longer and 
more definitely in France than in most German forests. Their management has been 
extraordinarily conservative for centuries. Even now the visitor to the forests comes 
across the old monuments and bounded areas reserved in determining upon the manage- 
ment and working limits, which were established in accordance with the ordinances of 
Colbert. The communal forests, likewise, have been under management for more than 
two centuries. In Germany, coppice with standards, which was formerly extensively 
employed in well settled regions of hardwood forest, has undergone far greater changes. 
In many cases it had already developed into irregular transition forms by the 17th and 
18th centuries. In the 19th century it lost its original character, even in the case of 
well-regulated management, because of the fact that systematic efforts were being made 
in the direction of establishing a generous forest capital of overwood. With such a 
stand of overwood as most of the German advocates of coppice stands with standards 
recommended ^^ — doubtless rightly, considering the increased revenue — the advanced 
reproduction of the underwood could not maintain itself vigorous over the entire area; 
it was partly destroyed. This is true to a yet greater extent when the overwood is 
held over in the form of groups as is frequently looked upon as the rule. Similar condi- 
tions exist respecting regeneration, which likewise is conducted mainly in the form of 
groups. In a group the growth of the young stuff is in accordance with the laws of 
growth characteristic of the high forest. 

The following notes on the French system of managing coppice with standards (apart 
from stands which were observed from time to time in the course of the railroad ride) 
apply, chiefly, only to a small forest of 193 hectares (476 acres), belonging to the hospital 
at Blois which we were permitted to inspect very minutely at the point where it ad- 
joined a high forest on a similar range under the management of a forest manager. 
In spite of its small acreage it was, nevertheless, very well suited for giving a person 
an idea of the features which characterize the French system of managing coppice with 
standards. The condition of this forest affords excellent data on the history of the 
standards, the political measures of the French administration, and the technical 
principles of management. Moreover, the revenues from the management for a decade, 
which were told us, afford a very good basis for forming an estimate of the economic 
value of the system of coppice with standards. 

The organization under consideration is of general interest, first with regard to the 
technical management, and, secondly, with regard to a review of the system of coppice 
with standards from the economic standpoint. 

(a) TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE TREATMENT OF THE COPPICE M'lTH STANDARDS 

The standard in accordance with which the management of coppice with standards 
is regulated is in France, on the whole, very uniformly maintained. The unforeseen 

1^ E. G. Schuberg. Zur Betriebsstatistik im Mittelwald (Statistics of management for 
coppice with standards) (city forest of Durlach, with 250-350 m.^ (8,830-12,360 cubic 
feet)); Lauprecht, Aus dem Muhlhauser Mittelwald (250 m.^) (8,830 cubic feet). (From 
the coppice with standards forest of Miihlhaus.) 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 



489 



difficulties in determining the yield which have led, in Germany, to the proposing of 
special formulas have not been prominent in France. The regulation of income and 
the extent of the cuttings conformable to condition of the system of management being 
employed are upon the area basis. In the forest region under consideration the greater 
part (three-quarters) of the forested area was divided into 25 regeneration compartments 
of 5.75 hectares (14.2 acre3) each. A quarter of the entire area was excluded from 
this classification and constituted a reserve to be included in the utilization only in case 
of unusual demand. Such exceptional demands always occur, however, some time 
within the course of the 25-year periods so that the estabhshment of such a reserve does 
not involve a permanent change of the rotation period. 

The establishing of such reserves is a peculiarity of the French communal forests, 
which are under the strict supervision of the State. Even Colbert ordered their forma- 
tion: "The celebrated ordinance of 1669 commands that a fourth of all woodlands 
belonging to the clergy, to ecclesiastical corporations, to the public, etc., be constituted 
a reserve. The rest of the area had to be included in the regular cuttings." The 
reserves are either permanently located in some definite place, "reserves a assiette fixe, 
delimiiee et marquee sur le terrain''; or they are shifting reserves, "'reserves a assiette 
mobile," "of such a sort that instead of cutting each year the area or volume which 
expresses the annual yield only three-fourths of this yield is left over for the meeting 
of unforeseen necessities." 

In the hospital forest at Blois the method of fixed reserves was used; and this seems, 
also, to be the general practice. Of 8,775.13 hectares (21,684.10 acres) of communal 
forest which were seen here, the arrangement of permanently located reserves was 
appUed over 7,550.68 hectares (18,658.40 acres). 

The 25-year rotation practiced in the hospital forest of Blois is somewhat below the 
average for forests under Government administration. According to the department 
of agriculture's statistics the figures for the coppice with standards for the entire country 
are as follows : they are managed under a rotation period of — - 



In Government 
forests 

In communal 
forests 



7,071 hectares = 4.1% 
24,605 hectares = 2.7% 



20-29 



81,557 hectares = 49.9% 
707,803 hectares = 77.5% 



30 years and up 



75,521 hectares = 46% 
181,949 hectares = 19.8 



of the area 



The rotation period for the underwood is, according to this, even longer than is 
customary in Germany. Its choice is the result of economic considerations. The aim 
of the management, especially in the communal forests, is directed constantly to the 
production of better firewood (fagots) . 

The most important problem of forest adjustment in the coppice with standards is 
the regulation of the overwood which constitutes the peculiar characteristic of this 
system of management. The overwood is classified by age classes determined on 
the basis of the rotation periods in the underwood. They are distinguished: (1) 
Baliveaux de Vage (reserves), which are a rotation period older than the sprouts of the 
underwood; (2) Modernes (standards of two rotations), which have been twice reserved; 
and (3) Anciens (veterans), which are in the fourth rotation of the underwood. 

Eventually there is added to these yet a fourth class, la vieille ecorce (old standards) . 
According to this the age of maturity for the overwood under a 25-year rotation period 
for the underwood would be 100 years; in the case of a 30-year rotation for the under- 



490 



APPENDIX 



wood, 120 years. The system is not followed mechanically, but vigorous trees are, 
rather, left standing longer without, however, practicing this to so great an extent as 
is customary in many German forests. 

As to the number of trees per hectare in the several age classes, tolerably definite 
rules were given. The closeness of the stands is astonishing. In the forest at Blois the 
numbers in the various age classes, for the annual cut, amounted to: Baliveaux — total, 
287; per hectare, 50 (20 per acre). Modernes — total, 81; per hectare, 14 (6 per acre). 
Anciens — total, 34; per hectare, 6 (2 per acre). 

According to this, very light cuttings are made. The 25- to 30-year-old baliveaux 
contain only a very small volume; even the modernes are mainly trees with a content 
of less than 35 cubic feet. And the few anciens with about 35 to 70 cubic feet could 
have no great influence upon the total volume of wood taken from the entire cutting 
area. In the cutting areas which we saw, in which final cuttings had been made not 
long since, the entire overwood was estimated at 1,410 to 1,765 cubic feet. It is true 
that many advocates of the French system of forest management recommend a larger 
amount of overwood capital. But actually the maximum amount retained at the 
beginning of the rotation amounts to only 1,145 cubic feet per acre. This is far less 
than correspondents testify is the practice in the German management of coppice with 
standards. 

The hospital forest of Blois does not vary much, in its composition and in the pro- 
portion of overwood, from the figures which are cited for the entire country. Accord- 
ing to the department of agriculture's statistics the following relative figures per hectare 
were obtained for the fiscal year (Wirtschaftsjahr) 1876: 





Baliveau.x 


Modernes 


Anciens 


Government forest 

Communal forest 


39 (16 per acre) 
64 (26 per acre) 


11 (4 per acre) 
18 (7 per acre) 


2 (1 per acre) 
5 (2 per acre) 





In individual parts of the country there are, of course, great differences. Individual 
conservations (districts) (Dijon, Rouen, Nancy, Amiens, etc.), contain over 100 baliveaux 
and over 30 modernes per hectare (40 and 12, respectively, per acre). 

The details of the management of the coppice with standards belonging to the State 
and administered by the State are worked out in accordance with the fundamental 
principles of the system far more sj^stematically than in Germany. Here it is always 
looked upon as a difficult sort of management which makes special demands on the 
tact and activity of the organizing and executive officers, "/m Mitlelwalde der Zu- 
kunft," is observed in the papers of the convention of German foresters at Dresden in 
1889 "musz die intensivste Bewirtschaftung, reine Baumivirtschaft Amvendung findem, 
wenn derselbe den an seine Produkticitdl, an seine Geldertr'dge und Nachhaltigkeit zu stel- 
lenden Aufforderimgen entsprechen soil" ("In the coppice with standards of the future 
the most intensive management, pure forestry, must find application if the same is to 
meet the demands placed upon it, in its productivity, its money revenues, and its per- 
manence")- Nevertheless, it wiU only be very seldom that such a goal will be sought 
and attained in the future. It leads to a very large capital of overwood and to the- 
death or degeneration of the underwood. Such a tendency results in a gradual chang- 
ing of the coppice with standards to a regulated selection forest which is a yet better 
system of management for attaining the objects proposed. In most German forest 
regions this change has already commenced; in Prussia the coppice with standards is 
scarcely represented at present. Its distinguishing characteristic, the reserving of 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 491 

vigorous sprouts, demands an extensive management for the overwood, and hence it 
is thus that it is managed in the French State and communal forests. 

The predominating species in the French coppice with standards stands is the oak. 
It, alone, is recorded in the statistics. In Blois it occupied 95 per cent of the forest 
area. The oak, under the favorable conditions of site in central France, is characterized 
by good sprouting capacity and abundant seed production. The renovation of over- 
wood and underwood is effected, therefore, chiefly by natural regeneration and sprout- 
ing in a very satisfactory manner. In most instances, artificial regeneration is to be 
considered when large oaks, of which there are only a few per hectare, are rooted out. 
The rooting out of trees of a specified size is required of the buyer. When such root- 
ing out has taken place the buj-er is required to plant such places with oak or deposit 
the amount required for this planting. The places on which the wood has been worked 
must also be planted up by the buyer. He, moreover, is required to prune the reserved 
trees and this must be done to a height of 20 feet from the ground. These regulations 
are not mere matters of pen and ink; they are skilfully, carefully, and thoroughly carried 
out so that the visitor to the cutting areas receives the most favorable impression of the 
system. The impression one receives of the care of the underwood is not so favorable. 
Thinnings are not made in the underwood in the Blois forest — and the conditions at 
Blois are not exceptional — although, with the long rotation period,^they would be just 
as much in order as in the coppice stands for which their importance is demonstrated by 
the numerous tree sections at the Paris Exposition. The maintenance, also, of volun- 
tary seedlings and the preparation of the poles of the overwood for isolation indicate 
timely application of cleanings and thinnings in the underwood. The form of the 
purchase, however, makes for difficulties in this respect. The buyer, who has to get 
out the timber itself, has no interest in the small wood resulting from thinnings. 

(6) ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF COPPICE WITH STANDARDS 

Of most importance for the future of coppice with standards in France is not a well- 
developed technique, but its relations to economic conditions. The question as to 
whether coppice with standards, which comprises some 3,000,000 hectares (7,413,270 
acres) in France, yields profits commensurate with the best utilization of the land is 
of great influence upon its future management and the methods of regulation. The 
answer is dependent, on the one hand, upon the volume and value of the material 
which it furnishes, and on the other, upon the cost and working methods which are 
existent or which would have to be introduced in order to produce this volume and value. 

The production of volume in the French coppice with standards stands can be very 
well indicated. On the basis of economic results a much more trustworthy judgment 
can be foimd for it than is possible in the case of the high forest. Utilization in the 
coppice with standards stands has long been much more uniform. In the forest at 
Blois which we visited the income corresponding to the increment amounts annually 
to large cuts on the 5.74 hectare (15-acre) cutting areas: In the year 1891, 548; 1892, 
554; 1893-1894, 931; 1895, 540; 1896, 547; 1897, 501 ; 1898, 517; 1899, 547 m.^. Accord- 
ing to this, the average volume of the annual cut on the 5.74 hectare (15-acre) amounts 
to 91 m.3 per hectare (1,300 cubic feet per acre). This is equivalent to a yearly utiliza- 
tion of 3.6 m.3 (127 cubic feet) for a 25-year rotation. In the adjacent high forest, 
occupying a smiliar site, the annual yield amounts to 3.3 m.^ (117 cubic feet). The 
volume actually used in the two systems, therefore, differs but shghtly; but the coppice 
with standards system is in the lead. If the conditions throughout the country are 
compared this difference is seen to be even more favorable to the system of coppice with 
standards. According to the statistics of the department of soils and commerce (Acker- 
und Handelsrninisterium) there were used per hectare of forest area in the year 1876: 



492 APPENDIX 

In the State high forest, 2.91 m.^ (41.6 cubic feet per acre); communal, 1.73 m.^ (24.7 
cubic feet per acre). In the coppice with standards, 4.26 m.^ (61.0 cubic feet per acre); 
communal, 4.00 m.' (57.2 cubic feet per acre). If that kind of figures were to be re- 
garded as decisive the coppice with standards would obviously be the more profitable 
type of management. But such a conclusion is probably unjustified. Statistics must 
not be perverted to overthrow accepted existing facts. In view of the fundamental 
principles of increment the production of wood, other things being equal, cannot be 
greater in coppice with standards stands than in high forest, but really must be less. 
In the large amount of brushwood itself, constituting almost half the entire cutting, 
in which is contained much more of the soil nutrients than in the wood more than 2.8 
inches in diameter at the small end (Derbholz) or in an abundant seed crop of isolated 
trees of^the overwood, there are two fundamental impulses which, as far as sustained an- 
nual increment is concerned, act on the negative side of the balance. Moreover, stock- 
ing is seldom as complete in the stands of coppice with standards as in the regulated high 
forest. To understand the conflict of the French statistics of income with the actual 
inevitable conditions, it must be remembered that in coppice with standards stands, 
which are conducted very uniformly as far as rotation period and growing stock are 
concerned, the entire increment is used and is used earlier, so that income and increment 
are, at least approximately, equal. In the high forest this is not true. In the case of 
these, especially in the State forests, utilization has remained very much lower than 
increment. Moreover, in France as in other countries, coppice with standards stands 
are located preferably on the more favorable sites. High mountains, rugged sites, 
stony soils, are no sites for the coppice with standards. In many German States there 
have likewise been evident results similar to those in France. The grand duchy of 
Baden's statistics show the revenue from stands of coppice with standards as earlier 
and greater than that from the high forests. But more recent statistics demonstrate 
that the results obtained from the management of the high forest there are really superior 
to those from coppice with standards, under similar treatment especially when thinnings 
are properly conducted, and in spite of the imfavorable sites it occupies. This view is, 
indeed, shared even by the exponents of the French system of forest management, 
who have at their disposal a comprehensive knowledge of conditions throughout the 
country. In Chapter 4, Part 2, of his work, "De V exploiiabilite dans ses rapports avec 
Vinieret public" (The age of maturity in its bearing upon the public interests), Tassy 
summarizes the results obtained with high forest and with coppice with standards. 
He arrives at the conclusion that under average conditions of growth the high forest 
under good management could yield 6 m.' per hectare (86 cubic feet per acre) — "chiffre 
trhs modere (a very conservative figure)." The average yield from stands of coppice 
with standards is, on the contrary, estimated at 4.30 m. (63 cubic feet per acre). 

This unfavorable showing of the absolute production of the coppice with standards 
cannot be compensated for even by the ratio of increment to capital, or the growth 
per cent. Compared with the high forest managed on a very long rotation period 
with a proportionately large number of trees per hectare, the system of coppice with 
standards does, it is true, present a very favorable appearance in the connection. But 
it is easy to deceive one's self in that regard by measurements of single trees. The com- 
parative annual increments of the coppice with standards are very unequal. Especially, 
after the felling of the imderwood and openings in the overwood, the growth per cents, 
of the younger age classes in particular, are very high, far higher than is necessary for 
meeting the demands made on the production by the stands. Later, these conditions 
are changed. They result more unfavorably than is the case in the high forest where 
the decline in increment in the pole and standard ages can be far better met by means 
of vigorous thinnings and openings. 



GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 



493 



The work prepared by certain French forest owners for the Paris Exposition affords 
information on the increase of volume which occurs in the course of a rotation period. 
It deals fundamentally with stands of coppice with standards with moderately large 
growing stock of overwood and four age classes the numbers of whose trees per hectare 
stand in the ratio of 8 (baliveanx) to 4 (modernes) to 2 (anciens) to 1 {vieille ecorce) . The 
effect of the increased volume is that with a 25-year rotation period the volume of the 
stands increases in the ratio of 1 to 2; with a 30-year rotation in the ratio of 1 to 2.5. 

The system of coppice with standards seems the poorer form of management as 
compared with the high forest, more because of the poor quality of the wood produced 
than because of its small volume. It does not satisfy the demands which have been 
made for the most important technical properties (clean full boles). The reduction in 
the number of trees per hectare to about 50 (20 per acre), which occurs at the age of 
25 years, has the natural result that the twigs which are present at a height of about 
3 to 5 m. (10 to 15 feet) remain and develop. Corresponding to the formation of large, 
deep-rooted twigs is the formation of broad annual rings which are laid on for a longer 
time until decreased under the influence of the underwood growing up about them 
and of the increasing seed production. Branchy tapering trees of unequal height are 
the natural result in coppice with standards stands under the conditions of growth 
described. 

The influence of the type of management on the quality of the wood is clearly shown 
by presenting yield statistics. In the forests of Blois the volume and financial returns 
in the past decade were as follows : 





Yield 


Auction prices 


Year 






ni.3 


Total francs 


Per m.3, francs 


1891 


543 


8,500 


15.65 


1892 


554 


8,100 


14.62 


18931 

1894/ 


931 


12,200 


13.10 


1895 


540 


6,300 


11.67 


1896 


547 


7,350 


13.44 


1897 


501 


6,150 


12.28 


1898 


517 


6,275 


12.14 


1899 


547 


7,500 


13.71 


Total 


4,680 * 


62,375 t 


13.33 t 



* 165,276 cubic feet. f $12,048.40. t $0.07 per cubic foot. 

The average cubic meter is thus seen to be valued at 13.33 francs, while the adjacent 
Government high forest has yielded almost double this price for the average cubic 
meter. 

Relative figures similar to those given us for the forest region which we visited at Blois 
exist likewise for the entire country. According to the department of agriculture's 
statistics, in the fiscal year 1876: The value of the average cubic meter amounted in 
the Government forest to 16.26 francs (9 cents per cubic foot) ; in the communal forest 
to 8.42 francs (5 cents per cubic foot); the yield per year and hectare in the Govern- 
ment forest to 38.59 francs ($3 per acre); in the communal forest to 22.70 francs ($1.82 
per acre). 

The chief cause for the difference per cubic meter and in the annual revenue is to be 
found in the preponderance of coppice with standards in the communal forests. In 



494 APPENDIX 

individual parts of the country figures on the conditions of site stand, and market will 
be found very different. For the conservation of Tours, which forms part of the forests 
visited, the yield per hectare was: in the State forest, 40.59 francs ($3.17 per acre) for 
coppice with standards; 44.83 francs ($3.50 per acre) for conversion stands; 64.35 francs 
($5.13 per acre) for broad leaf (Angiosperms) high forest; in the communal forest, 44.21 
francs ($3.45 per acre) for coppice with standards, 63.68 francs ($4.98 per acre) for 
high forest. 

How little timber the French coppice with standards produces as a whole is evident 
from Tas.sy's summary, where he says of it: "In a normal coppice with standards stand 
the overwood constitutes not more than a third of the volume of the annual cut; and 
if we grant that in the overwood a half yields timber we are giving it just as much as 
possible. So if I place the timber at one-sixth the volume cut I need not be accused of 
trying to reduce the ratio." The following estimate, based on this, shows that of 13 
million cubic meters (460,000,000 cubic feet) produced by French coppice with standards 
stands, only 2\ million cubic meters (88,000,000 cubic feet) can be sold as timber. 
In the department of agriculture 's statistics the per cents of timber for the fiscal year 
1876 are given as follows: For State coppice with standards, 23 per cent; for communal, 
12 per cent; for State high forest, 51 per cent; for communal, 42 per cent. 

From what has been said there can be no question that the system of coppice with 
standards does not meet the economic demands which must be made of forest manage- 
ment in France. It was, as in Germany, of importance in the past. As long as fire- 
wood was a prime necessity for the entire population wood was needed in proportionately 
small sizes, and since in most forest regions there were insurmountable difficulties in the 
way of timber traffic it formed a very good system of management for those woodlands 
located near the consumers. Hence we find the following note to the department's 
statistics, concerning communal forests: "It must be appreciated that for this kind of 
forest ownership, it is a verj' suitable system. Furnishing the inhabitants, as it does, 
with a variety of species and kinds of wood it meets their requirements better than does 
the high forest." But the character of the demands made upon the woodlands has 
suffered a radical change in the course of the 19th century. In all essential respects 
coppice with standards is inferior to the high forest; in its relations to the soil as well 
as in its bearings on yield. For maintaining soil fertility coppice with standards is 
not an especially commendable silvicultural system. The mere fact that those species 
which form the best soil cover do not occur in it is a factor of unfavorable influence. 
Likewise the difficulty of amalgamating overwood and underwood into a uniform 
canopy. More important yet are its economic shortcomings. It stands in opposition 
to the general economic principle that with progressive development of the cultivation 
of the land, all management must be more intensively conducted, and at a greater outlay 
of labor and capital. The kinds most demanded by the French economic conditions, 
loppings and wood for splitting (Schneide- und Spaltholz), are produced only in very 
small quantities. It is, therefore, to the general economic interests of the country that 
the stands of coppice with standards be changed over into high forest as quickly as the 
financial condition of the owners permits. This is recognized as the right principle even 
in France. As far as the State forests are concerned the change has already been 
effected over large areas, and is to a great extent in progress elsewhere. The 1876 
statistics give the stands in process of conversion in the State forests as 290,227 hectares 
(717,170 acres), the Handbook of 1900 as 124,374 hectares (307,340 acres). For the 
communal forests this change can proceed only very gradually because of the financial 
sacrifice involved. 



FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 



495 



APPENDIX J 

THE FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE i 

^ea. — The forests of Alsace-Lorraine cover 1,085,520 acres; this is 30.3 per cent 
of the total land area, and 47 per cent of the area in agriculture, and corresponds to 0.6 
of an acre of forest per inhabitant. Therefore Alsace-Lorraine with 30.3 per cent has 
almost twice the proportional forest area that France proper possesses — 18.7 per cent; 
and it is even above the average for Europe which is 28.8 per cent, but below that of the 
Vosges Department — 36.9 per cent. Since 1871 the average in acres under forests, 
divided according to ownership, has been as follows: 



Year 


State 


Undivided 


Communal 


Public 
institution 


Private 


1871 

1881 


• 330,652 
330,930 
337,016 
337,112 
343,119 


44,469 
42,472 
40,273 
40,162 
40,053 


487,574 
490,295 
491,958 
494,184 
491,342 










1891 






1901 
1913 






5,966 


208,069 



This makes a grand total of 1,088,549 acres in 1913 but (to check with the correct total 
area) from this total must be subtracted 3,029 acres, probably due to incomplete statis- 
tics on private forests, which gives a net total of 1,085,520 acres. From these statistics 
it is evident that the area of State forests was increased 12,467 acres and the communal 
forests 3,768 acres under German management. About half the increase in State forest 
area was due to purchases and half to transfers from forests formerly in undivided owner- 
ship. It is of interest that there were no less than 1,123 communes owning communal 
forests, or about 438 acres average per commune in 1913. A very much larger propor- 
tion of the forest area is in public ownership than in France proper as may be seen from 
the following table: 



Class of ownership 



State 

Undivided 

Communes 

Public institutions. 
Private 



Per cent owned by classes of owners 



Haute-Alsace 



Per cent 

17.85 



65.38 

0.18 

16.59 



Basse- Alsace 



Per cent 

25.73 
10.14 ' 
45.85 
0.77 
17.51 



Lorraine 



Per cent 

47.62 



27.57 

0.61 

24.20 



Totals . 



100 



100 



100 



* The most important forest in undivided ownership is Haguenau, with 35,313 acres. 
This is one of the most interesting forests in Alsace-Lorraine. 

* Digested from Les ForMs d'Alsace et de Lorraine, par H. Lafosse, Vol. II, Traveaux 
et Notices publies par I'Academie d'Agriculture de France, 1919. Based on 1913 
statistics collected by the German Forest Service. A literal translation of the subject 
headings of the above monograph is as follows: "Area of forests, Methods of treatment 
and distribution of species, Free use, Forest administrative organization. Management 



496 APPENDIX 

Only one-fifth the forest area is in private hands and in Haute-Alsace two-thirds the 
forests are in the hands of the communes. 

Deforestation is rare; from 1871 to 1912 only 2,923 acres of State forest, 6,642 acres of 
communal, and 9,768 acres of private forest (total of 19,333 acres) has been cleared — a 
negligible per cent for a period of over 40 years. Since Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by 
Germany a total of 13,919 acres has been reforested, or about 331 acres per year. There 
is only about 74,000 acres of barren land, of which at least 49,000 is excellently adapted 
for grazing, leaving perhaps 25,000 acres to be restocked. This compares most favor- 
ably with France proper, where there is perhaps 15 million acres of unused soil, at least 
two-thirds of which could be forested. 

Important Species. — " Besides, in the forests of the recovered territory there are 
found the best species (fir, pine, oak, beech) and the production of timber, favored by a 
climate suitable for growth, reaches the average figure of 4.1 cubic meters per hectare per 
year" (perhaps 250 to 300 board feet per acre per year). According to Lafosse: "The 
forests are located for the most part in the Vosges Mountains and on their lower slopes; 
the Lorraine plateau is also stocked with forests and they are found in the valley of the 
Rhine as islands (of forest), some very important stands, notably Haguenau and Hardt 
(Mulhausen)." The fir and beech (high forests) are found chiefly on the Vosges sands 
(gres vosgien) and the granites, while the oak-beech (coppice and coppice-under- 
standards) is on the marls and limestone. The area, by species, in the high forests is 
as follows: Beech 34| per cent, fir 32^ per cent, pine 18 per cent, oak 12^ per cent, and 
birch-alder 2| per cent. There are only 586 acres of larch and about one-eighth as 
much spruce as fir. Counting all species the broadleaves comprise seven-tenths of the 
stand and the conifers three-tenths. 

Silvicultural Systems. — The method of treatment for (a) the broadleaves and 
(6) the conifers is as follows: 

Per cent of total forest area 

Broadleaves: Coppice 6 

Coppice-under-standards 26 

Protection forests xV of 1 

Under conversion 4^ 

Selection f^ of 1 

High forest 30 

Total broadleaves 67| 

Conifers: Selection 1 

High forest 31^ 

Total conifers 32§ 

Grand total 100 

For all species the high forest systems occupy 64 per cent of the area but comprise 73 
per cent in the State forests and 60 per cent in the communal and public institution 
forests. 

The age classes, both for conifers and broadleaves, are well distributed, but Lafosse (in 
keeping with French conservatism) argues that the older stands (over 100 years of age) 

of the forests. Exploitation of the timber. Material cut. Money yield of the forests. Wood 
prices. Money value of the State forests of Alsace-Lorraine, Expenditures of the Forest 
Service, Wood industries, Movement of the exchange of forest products. Shooting in 
Alsace-Lorraine, Policy of shooting, Damage caused by game." These data have been 
summarized and rearranged. 

Lafosse is one of the most distinguished French foresters and holds the rank of In- 
specteur General des Eaux et Forets, and after the armistice was appointed Directeur 
General des Eaux et Forets et de I'Agriculture d' Alsace et de Lorraine. 



FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 497 

are deficient, occupying only 14 per cent of the area. The 47,007 acres under conversion 
are a most noteworthy achievement in economy and are really the feature of the German 
forest administration, but, according to Lafosse, "The method used was not scientific 
and was often brutal," there having been according to French technique, too abrupt 
changes. 

Administrative Organization. — In 1871 the Germans placed oberforsters (cor- 
responding to supervisors) in charge of definite units instead of continuing the French 
system of forest organization which provided for inspectors supervising a considerable 
area, subdivided and under the immediate charge of assistant inspectors. In addition 
to the usual duties the oberforster had charge of logging because the product was sold in 
the log instead of as standing timber as in France. In addition all road improvements 
were directly under the oberforster as well as the building of ranger stations, and game 
control. Under the oberforster were the rangers and guards. Over the oberforster was 
the forstmeister, but in 1881 this position was abolished for poUtical reasons.^ Instead, 
two or three advisors (or general inspectors) were attached to the office of the ober- 
forstmeister, who corresponded to the French conservateur or American district forester. 
The entire service was under a director or landforstmeister. There were about 817 
officers in the entire organization of whom 740 were local and 77 overhead. The ober- 
forster and subordinate force were lodged or given an allowance for quarters. Just how 
this organization will be modified by the new French administration it is too early to 
predict but it is fairly certain that the numljer of officers and employees will be largely 
reduced (and French officers entirely substituted) ; if sales of timber are again made on 
the stumpage basis instead of as manufactured products the present organization will 
be totally changed. 

Working Plans. — Working plans during the German administration were pre- 
pared by a commission composed of the oberforstmeister (conservateur) and the ober- 
forster of the forest concerned and were approved by the landforstmeister (the ranking 
forester of Alsace-Lorraine), on the advice of the technical working plan bureau. The 
forests were divided into working groups, sub-working groups, sections, and compart- 
ments. The timber was divided into age classes and the soil into quality classes, and the 
periods were usually 20 years or less. The yield was given in cubic meters — never by 
area or by number of trees. The local officer in charge was bound to the prescribed yield 
with a leeway of 10 per cent for overrun or underrun. It is of interest to read the critique 
of these plans by Lafosse: 

"The working plans were very rich in many columned tables; the work was quite com- 
plicated. At first glance, the French methods, because of their suppleness and simplicity 
— where the last word has not yet been said — seem much better. However there is one 
point in the former working plans which shows real progress over the French system. 
It is the program of logging roads. The price of timber is closely linked with logging 
facilities — an elementary truism which need not be further emphasized. The working 
plan should not only prescribe the best rules for cultural treatment, but it must also dis- 
close the means of assuring a handy and economical removal of the products. This 
principle was applied by the foresters of the former organization." 

Even the detailed plan of road work was incorporated in the working plan, the de- 
tails being drawn by ^specialists, so that when the working plan was finally approved the 
supervisor could go ahead with his program. Automatically the necessary credits were 
included in the budget. 

2 It is of historical interest to note that the difficult and troublesome questions of free- 
use rights in the old "Comte de Dabo (Lorraine)" were not settled by the Germans. 
From 1882 to 1908 the value of the free-use privileges nearly doubled. They attempted 
settlements but for political reasons " withdrew the projects." No wonder they had 
difficulties when it is recalled that there was a "veritable revolt" in 1848 when French 
records were burned and foresters shot. 



498 



APPENDIX 



The rotations were much shorter than in France. For oak the rotation was rarely 
over 160 years, beech and fir 120, pine 70 to 80, spruce plantations 80 years — ■ "As 
we have said before there are no old trees in Alsace-Lorraine." The former method 
of clear cutting followed by planting, so generally followed, has "during the last ten 
years . . . shown a tendency toward the natural regeneration methods of the French." 
With French control unquestionably natural regeneration will largely replace clear cutting 
and planting. 

Logging. — The German administration did its own logging. "The felled timber 
was transported near the roads. The oberforsters hired the lumberjacks and based 
their wages on price .schedules issued by the conservators. The workmen were super- 
vised by the guards and especially by the lumberjack foremen. The latter were really 
the ones to direct the logging." The manufactured product was classified according 
to species and class of product and was auctioned in small lots so as to fill the small 
local requirements; and with small sales there was better competition and hence higher 
prices. Sales could not be made by mutual agreement unless the product in question 
had first been offered at public auction; nor could timber or cordwood be sold at less 
than 10 per cent of the minimum rate (established by the landforstmeister) nor could 
more than $25 worth be sold, without an auction, to the same purchaser in one fiscal 
year. No money could be received by forest officers or employees — it was paid to 
the "forstkrass" or "caisses forestieres" corresponding to the American fiscal agent's 
office. 

Yield Data. — It is of interest to compare the total yield per hectare in Alsace- 
Lorraine with border departments: 



Class of forest 


Location 


Year 


Total yield per hectare, 
cubic meters 


Per cent saw timber 
(bois d'cEuvre) 


State 

State 

Communal. . . 


Alsace-Lorraine 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Haute-Saone 

Vosges 

Meurthe-et-Moselle. . . 
Haute-Saone 


1882 
1913 

1913 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 


3.97 
4.29 

4.75 

4.0] 

4 . 4 U average 

3.6] 

4.5] 

3 . 4 !• 3 . 7 average 


36.1 

47.3 (88 per cent 
bois fort)* 


State 

State 

State 

Communal. . . 


47.5] 

56.8 

28.0 

20.0 

41.2 

15.6 


44.1 average 


Communal. . . 
Communal . . . 


Vosges 

Meurthe-et-Moselle. . . 


25.6 average 



* It should be noted that according to German usage Derbholz or "bois fort" in- 
cludes some wood which the French statistics do not class as saw timber, namely, "quar- 
tiers" and "rondins" of the French fuel classes (that is, everything over 2.7 inches at 
small end). 

From the above table it appears that the communal forests in Alsace-Lorraine have 
a lighter yield than the State forests and that the French State forests in three border 
departments in 1911 averaged 4 cubic meters per hectare per year as compared with 
4.29 for the State forests in Alsace-Lorraine; the relative production of saw timber was 
44.1 per cent as against 47.3 per cent for Alsace-Lorraine. The French communal 
forests in these departments were very inferior as regards saw timber because of the 
high proportion of coppice and coppice-under-standards. Extremely interesting figures 
on the cost of logging and gross receipts are given for the communal forests. In 1913 
there were 487,967 acres cut over (chiefly thinnings of varj'ing degree) removing 862,352 
cubic meters (about 107,785,000 board feet and 44,910 cords). In addition, 45,759 
cubic meters of dead leaves were removed for local use as bedding, etc. The 



FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 



499 



cost ^ of logging to point of sale was $591,738 and the gross receipts $2,232,480. This 
signifies that stumpage secured almost three-fourths the value of the delivered log or cord 
excluding overhead. 

The total net receipts from State forests (and State forests held in undivided owner- 
ship) was $1,175,764 or $7.78 per acre forested; in 1913 the net total was $1,186,626, 
and the net per acre $7.65 or 13 cents less than in 1873. In 1918 the receipts had 
almost doubled owing to war inflation. The revenue has been constant except in 1892 
and 1902 when there were losses from windfall due to an overstocked market and con- 
sequent low prices. There are no reliable data on the returns from private forests. 

Stumpage Prices. — Stumpage prices have fluctuated with the economic conditions, 
since forestry is a key industry in Alsace-Lorraine. The prices in 1913 and 1919 for the 
different classes of product are of interest: 



Class of Product 


Minimum length, 
feet 


Minimum 

diameter, 

inches 


Dollars per cubic meter 


1913 


1919, February 


(l)Logs 

(2) Logs 

(3) Logs 

(4) Logs 

(5) Logs 

(6) Logs 

Cordwood .... .... 


59.0 
59.0 
52.5 

45.9 
32.8 

under 32.8 
"Rondins" 


11.8 
8.7 
6.7 
5.5 
4.7 
5.5 


6.31 
5.71 

4.76 
3.81 
3.57 
3.10 
1.67 (stere) 


11.90 
9.52 
8.33 
4.76 
4.76 
4.29 
4.76 (stere) 







For 52.5-foot trees, 6.7 inches at small end outside bark, these prices (for class 3) are 
equivalent to about $19 a thousand board feet in the log along the roads and $33 in 
early 1919. This means about $14 and $24 on the stump for medium-sized trees in 1913 
and 1919. It should be noted that the inflation was much greater in France, for just 
across the border at St. Die the last auctions of 1918 yielded about $47 per thousand 
board feet for good fir on the stump, or almost double the price in Alsace-Lorraine. 

Miscellaneous Data. — From 1907 to 1917, 304,895 acres of the State forests 
(about five-sixths of the total) were valued by the German service and totaled with the 
actual growing stock, $78,735,237, or about $254.37 per acre. Taking five-sixths of the 
net revenue of $7.65 per acre this means a return of 2^ per cent on the assessed capital 
invested. But Lafosse estimates that France secures State forests with a round total 
sale value of 154 million dollars and that the return on this higher valuation has been 
only 1.26 per cent — "a low return." For all public forests the "coefficient of exploita- 
tion . . . was about 50 per cent " . . . but almost $96,500 was spent fln7iz/a% 
on road and railroad development. The building of Government forest railroads has 
proven especially profitable. For example, the Abreschwiller paid for itself in 6 years 
through higher prices for the timber and cordwood. The Germans put 4.7 per cent of 
the total money spent each year into planting and sowing; this amounted (for the State 
forest area) to $4.87 per acre for sowing labor and $7.65 per acre for planting labor. 
The planting stock averaged $3.17 per thousand transplants, which is certainly not a 
high cost compared with the costs on National Forests in the United States. 

Wood Industries. — The chief wood industries are: Sawmills, furniture, flooring, 
wooden shoes, implement handles, shoe trees, vehicle bodies, billiard tables, etc. 

In 1907 Alsace-Lorraine imported 50,000 tons (a deficit of about one-twentieth the 
total production) of wood products mostly from Austria, Sweden, and the Rhine "Pala- 

3 The normal value of the mark 23.8 cents was used in converting marks to dollars. 



500 APPENDIX 

tinat," so the return of the "lost provinces" to France will not help her timber shortage. 
Considering that 30 per cent of the country is forested it is especially surprising to find 
that 70,000 steres (about 20,000 cords) of fuel are imported and in addition 7^ miUion 
tons of coal. Granting that Alsace-Lorraine cannot export wood to France, France 
must reforest with rapidly growing species her 15 million acres of land which is not now 
producing, and the low production of French private forests must be increased. "The 
owners must be persuaded to give up their short rotations (in coppice and coppice- 
under-standards) and must be shown the necessity of producing saw timber" — for the 
benefit of the public. 

Judging from the data now available the German administration of Alsace-Lorraine 
public forests has been honest, efficient, and along correct lines. France receives back a 
valuable property which has been wisely developed during the 41 years of alienation. 



APPENDIX K 

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 

Translations from original French Government working plans give a further insight 
into management methods and policy. The original French metric system has been 
retained. The following extracts are given: 

(1) Digest of Grande Cote (Jura) working plan revision illustrating a working plan 
by Devarennes. 

(2) Extract from working plan revision of State forest of Ban d'Etival, by Cuif, 
showing error in stocktaking in 1898. Masson method of yield calculation used ex- 
perimentally as a comparison with the method of 1883 and regulation by number of 
trees. This is one of the most interesting forests in France for detailed study by those 
interested in forest management. 

(3) Forest of Mont Glore. An example of errors in early yield calculation which 
resulted in an over cut. 

(4) Forest of Hardies (near Oloron, Basses-Pyrenees). Forestry on alluvial land 
subject to flooding, and therefore unsuited to agriculture. 

(5) Forest of La Joux (Haute-Jura). Yield calculation where there is an excess 
growing stock. Graphic of growing stock compared with an empirical normal stand. 

(6) Forest of Fillingcs (Haute-Savoie). Recovery of a forest after forest management. 

(7) Forest of Burdignin (Haute-Savoie). Example of yield regulation by the method 
of 1883. 

(8) Forest of Pare et St. Quentin (Oise). Example of yield regulation by periods, 
with the provision that the silvical needs of the regeneration fellings (which will be de- 
pendent on the seed crops secured) should be subordinate to the sequence of fellings laid 
out by the working plan. 

(9) Forest of Thioz (Haute-Savoie). Example of a complete working plan by Schaef- 
fer, the foremost working plans officer in France. 

(1) STATE FOREST OF GRANDE COTE (JURA) 
PART I 

"All the available statistics concerning the state forest of Grande Cote are given in 
detail in the management plan of February 26, 1858, and in the revisions of March 31, 
1884, and April 27, 1897. Since this latter date there have been no actual changes in 
area. This area given in the revision of 1897 was 381.61 hectares." . . . Minor 
additions and substitutions have been made because of roads. . . . 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 501 

PART II. — MANAGEMENT IN FORCE 

FORMER MANAGEMENT PLANS 

Art. 1. — Digest of the bases of management. — The State forest of Grande 
Cote before it became State property belonged to the order of Citeaux, Abbey St. Marie. 

It was originally cut under the selection system, while the yield was regulated by the 
number of trees in accordance with the former usage. The decree of August 23, 1858, 
substituted the shelterwood system. The rotation was placed at 150 years and divided 
into 5 periods of 30 years each, corresponding to 5 periodic blocks on the ground. 

During the first period 1858-1887, the principal felling areas had to be laid out in the 
first i^eriodic block and in certain compartments of the fourth and fifth periodic blocks 
with a yield of 2,919 steres or 1,883 m. c. 

All the compartments not subjected to the main fellings were run over by biennial 
selection fellings to commence with and controlled by volume (310 steres or 200 m. c), 
but dating from 1864 (decree of June 25) by area and every four years. 

The improvement cuttings were unlimited in volume and the local executive officers 
were free to propose them as they saw fit. 

At the time of the 1884 revision (approved by decree of June 6, 1885) the rotation 
was 160 years dating from 1858 and divided into 4 periods of 40 years each, corre- 
sponding to the same numlier of periodic blocks. 

During the last 14 years of the period (1884-1897), the yield of 1,668 m. c. was secured 
in the first and fourth periodic blocks. 

Timber of 0.60 m. in circumference (7 inches d. b. h.) cut in the first, second, or 
fourth periodic blocks (except c.^) was subtracted from the prescribed yield. 

Improvement cuttings in places selection in character, elsewhere thinnings and 
cleanings were carried out on a cutting cycle of 14 j^ears in the fourth periodic block. 

MANAGEMENT ACTUALLY IN FORCE 

In 1897 (decree of September 3, 1897) the permanent periodic blocks were suppressed 
and the compartments readjusted in two groups. 

The first group including the compartments to be cut over under regeneration fellings 
by volume, the second comprising the remaining compartments and the object of the 
feUings both for improvement and mere extraction by area. These latter fellings 
extended also to the first group, but they must not be confounded with the main feUings. 

The yield recruited on the entire area of the forest was fixed at 3,200 m. c. The 
volume of all conifers 0.80 m. in circumference (10 inches d. b. h.) and above, no matter 
how realized, on the entire forested area was subtracted from the jdeld. 

During a period of 16 years, from 1897 to 1912, they carried out: (1) Regeneration 
feUings in the compartments 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 23; (2) improvement cut- 
tings and extraction on a cycle of 8 years on the entire surface of the forest. 

Art. 2. — Results obtained. — The various fellings have left the forest in the 
following condition : 

(1) Compartments of the first group, subjected to regeneration fellings (188.69 
hectares). 

The compartments 1 and 23 may be considered as entirely regenerated; they com- 
prise poles and young standards over a complete young growth with which there is 
some old timber which should be cut without delay. On the other hand regeneration 
must be continued or secured later on in: compartments 2, 3, 4, and 7 which comprise 
full crowned veterans, regular and dense, over advance growth and saplings in groups 
usually well started: 500 m. c. per hectare on the average of which 41 per cent is timber 
1.8 m. or more in circumference. Also compartments 8, 12, 13 which comprise rather 



502 



APPENDIX 



open veterans over quite dense seedlings: 340 m. c. per hectare on the average of which 
35 per cent is ripe timber. Compartments 5 and 9 comprise standards and large poles, 
dense, regular, and in very fine condition, over seedling growth. 

(2) Remaining compartments cut over by improvement fellings (192.92 hectares). 
The compartments 6, 11, 16, 17, 18 which are in the sapling and pole stage, with several 
veteran stands regular and dense. 

Compartments 10, 14, 15, 19, 22 are mature, in fully stocked stands; dense with a 
promising growth of a certain number of poles. 

The compartments 20, 21, 23, 24 comprise irregular poles and veterans with a certain 
amount of scattering large timber over thick seedling growth and saplings. Generally 
speaking the stands are growing well. While continuing to cut the mature timber 
there should be no hesitation in thinning the polos so as to increase their growth. 

Art. 3. — Application of the yield. — The following table gives (in accordance 
with the records at Pontarlier) the volume and the value of wood products realized in 
the State forest of Grande Cote during the 15 years from 1897 to 1911. 



Years 


Fellings 


Accidental 
products * 


Total volume 
per year 


Value of the 


Regeneration 


Improvement 


products 


1897 


m.3 


m.' 


m.3 

3,461 

1,148 

904 

978 

764 

1,133 

1,097 

1,159 

1,215 

1,040 

966 

1,316 

765 

3,063 

1,337 


m.3 
3,461 
2,940 
3,176 
3,224 
3,200 
3,319 
3,080 
3,200 
3,200 
3,202 
3,219 
3,302 
3,118 
3,063 
4,086 


Francs 
51,600 


1898 




1,792 

2,272 
2,246 
2,436 
2,186 
1,983 
1,025 
1,985 
2,162 
2,022 
1,986 
2,353 


51,150 


1899 




57,950 


1900 




66,600 


1901 




65,150 


1902 




52,700 


1903 




59,970 


1904 
1905 


1,016 


70,250 
57,400 


1906 




53,070 


1907 
1908 


231 


60,840 
71,730 


1909 




64,120 


1910 




57,670 


1911 


1,992 


757 


84,760 


Total 

Average 


3,239 
216 


25,205 
1,680 


20,346 
7,356 


48,790 
3,252 


924,960 
61,664 



* Note large and varying amounts of "accidental products" — chiefly windfall. 
The loss in timber, where a large area is cut over and then left for 40 or 50 years, as in 
the western United States, must be very great, m. c. and also m.^ = cubic meters. 

From the preceding figures it seems that during the 15 years, the average annual 
yield per hectare has been : 



In material 



3,252 
38,161 



8.52 cubic meters. 



In money ' = 161.58 francs ($12.47 per acre). 
o8,lol 

Exploitation Balance Sheet. — In the 15 years 1897 to 1911 there should have 
been cut 3,200 X 15 or 48,000 m. c; there was actually realized 48,790 or an excess of 
790. This excess provided for the windfall of 1911. 

In order to include a period sufficiently long, we have compared the inventory of 1883 
and the results of stocktaking of 1911, excluding the old compartment, 25 (now 27), 
which was not enumerated in 1883. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 
The results obtained are shown in the following table: 



503 



Date 
of In- 
ven- 
tory 




Number of trees 








Volumes 






Average 

timber 

0.80 to 1.20 


Interme- 
diate 
timber 
1.40 to 1.60 


Exploit- 
able 
timber 
1.80 and -1- 


Total 


Per 
hec- 
tare 


Average 

timber 

0.80 to 1.20 


Interme- 
diate 
timber 
1.40tol.60 


Exploit- 
able 
timber 
1.80 and + 


Total 


Per 

hec- 
tare 






Per 




Per 




Pa 






Per 




Per 




Per 










cent 




cent 




cent 






m.3 


cent 


m.3 


cent 


m.' 


cent 


m.3 


m.3 


1883 


50,184 


65 


20,613 


26 


7,159 


9 


77,956 


214 


47,387 


36 


50,241 


28 


33,466 


26 


131,094 


343 


1911 


47,851 


62 


21,168 


27 


8,303 


11 


77,322 


203 


42,866 


32 


53,695 


39 


38,633 


29 


135,194 


353 




-2,333 




-t-555 




+1,144 


-634 




-4,521 




+3,454 


+5,167 




+4,100 





Composition of the Stands (Number of trees and volume). — The number of 
trees 0.80 m. and over in circumference has passed from an average of 214 per hectare 
to 203 and the volume from 34.3 m. c. per hectare to 353 m. c. 

The stands have not sensibly changed during the period 1883-1911; they are more- 
over very nearly in the condition which is considered normal in the Jura except for a 
slight shortage in volume of old timber. 

Growth in Volume. — The comparison of the inventories of 1883 and 1911 gives 
an excess in 1911 of 4,100 m. c. From 1883 to 1896 25,099 m. c. has been realized 
making a total of 73,053 m. c. From 1897 to 1911 47,954 m. c. has been cut. The 

total growth for the 28 years would be 77,153 or annually — ^-— = 2,753 m. c; per 

1 , 1 2,753 m. c. - „ r^ 

hectare and per year „„,„„, — = 7.55 m. c. 



364.86 ha. 
Growth Per Cent. — Average capital 



131,094 + 135,194 



133,144 m. c. making an 



average stand volume per hectare of 



133,144 
36,486 



= 365 m. c. 



^ ,, , 7.55 X 100 ^ , , 

Growth per cent ^r^ or 2.1 per cent. 

We have not thought it possible to take account of the stock estimates of 1896 because 
in comparing it with the inventories of 1883 and on the other hand with the inventory 
of 1911 we arrive at results which do not appear to be admissible. 



Comparison of the inventories 
of 1896 and 1883 



Comparison of the inventories 
of 1896 and 1911 



Volume of the timber 
0.80 m. in circum- 
ference and over in- 
ventoried 



Volume of the timber 
0.80 m. in circum- 
ference and over 
realized 



1883 = 131,094 m. c. 
1896 = 153,793 m. c* 
i.e. 22,699 m. c. more 

From 1884 to 1896 = 25,377 

Total growth in 13 years = 

48,076 or per year 3,698 

Per hectare and per year 

3,698 ,_ ,„ 
3g^= 10.13 m.c. 

Growth per cent 

10.13 X 100 

390 



2.6 per cent 



1896 = 160,534 m. c. 
1911 = 143,062 m. c. 
i.e. 17,472 m. c. less 

From 1897 to 1911 = 48,790 

Total growth in 15 years = 

48,790-17,472 = 31,318m.c. 

Per hectare and per year 

2,088 _ . ,» 

8,161 ~ ^-^^ 

Growth per cent 

5.47 X 100 , , 

• 5^r^ = 1.4 per cent 



Not including the compartment 25 which had not been inventoried in 1883. 



504 APPENDIX 

We cannot satisfactorily explain how, in a period of 28 years, while the average 
volume per hectare remains sensibly the same, the annual growth per hectare could 
reach 10.13 m. c. during the first 13 years considered, while it is put at 5.47 m. c. during 
the last 15 years, the per cent falling similarly from 2.6 to 1.4; the vegatative conditions 
having remained the same and the yield adopted having always been very moderate 
(from 1.5 to 2 per cent of the growing stock enumerated). It seems that differences so 
marked and so abnormal must be attributed to inaccuracies in the enumerations of 1896 
taken as a basis for discussion. Moreover in a forest at quite a high altitude, such as 
that we are discussing (average of 1,000 meters), where the climate is severe, it seems 
difficult to admit, as the author of the 1897 working plan has done, that the average 
annual increment per hectare could be 10 m. c. and continue thus indefinitely. Such 
a growth is found actually at Levier and at La Joux but these two forests, situated at a 
lower altitude (average of 380 m.) and in a materially milder climate, show stands 
which are not comparable to those of the Grande Cote. On the plea of maintaining 
the timber capital at as high a rate of production as possible, it does not do to merely 
cut the mature timber and to believe, as written in the working plan of 1897 (p. 35), 
that a forest, such as Levier, only depreciates its per cent of production by making 
sacrifices to mature timber and that the production of the Grande Cote is raised because 
it contains average sized trees. It is very laudable to try to obtain the maximum yield 
and usually it is absolutely necessary to realize the mature timber, but is it not most 
important to make sure the forests are perpetuated? 

The factors which have an influence on the production of wood are extremely numer- 
ous; even if they are more or less known to us, yet we are still in doulat about many 
of them, as to what is the actual action and effective part of each in a phenomenon so 
complicated as that of the growth of wood and of the life history of a forest stand. 

Therefore, putting aside the systematic theories which often may hide the forest as 
it is, we feel we will have fulfilled our task, if, adopting the main provisions of the work- 
ing plan in force (in order to avoid those disorders which may compromise the benefits 
of a revision) and without any preconceived idea, we will succeed in placing the stands 
of the Grande Cote in the best possible condition to assure their vigor and to favor their 
growth. 

PART III. — REVISION 

Art. 1. — Discussion of the management in force and the method of treatment 
proposed. — The working plan on the whole is good; however, it appears to us to be 
defective in the following points : 

(1) The area allotted for regeneration is too large; it occupies more than two-fifths 
of the forest and consequently it has been impossible to cut it over with real regeneration 
fellings. 

Furthermore this group must be absolutely distinct and cannot be linked, without 
serious drawbacks, to the compartments to be cut over by area; in such a case one is 
compelled to practice bastard fellings, clearly without any definite character, after 
which the seeding does not take place. 

(2) To guide the executive officers in the natural operations, it is indispensable to 
indicate the compartments which must be regenerated after those of the first group. 

(3) It is necessary to prescribe for the beech in a definite manner; this associate species 
is very essential for the regeneration and good growth of fir stands. Its substitution 
for the conifers however should be prevented. 

(4) For the reasons already explained, the actual yield, which corresponds to a 
production of 8.6 m. c. must be reduced. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



505 



It will be calculated anew with the 1911 valuations as a basis, and after taking account 
of the state of the stands; the annual growth of 7.3 m. c. (which) is a growth per cent 
of 2 for the period 1883-1911. Under these conditions the State forest of Grande 
Cote will be treated as regular high forest in a single working group with a rotation of 
150 years. 

The shelterwood system will continue in force, but with the following modification 
(see "Regulation," p. 239): 

The permanent periodic blocks will remain void but the compartments wiU be divided 
into three groups: (a) Compartments to be regenerated; (6) those compartments 
which according to all probability will be ready for regeneration after those of the 
first group; (c) the remaining compartments of the forest. 

The compartments will continue to be designated from the N. E. to the S. W.; in 
the course of time by Arabic numerals. On the map the compartments of the first group 
will be shown by blue; those of the second group by yellow; while those of the third 
group will not be colored at all. 

Art. 2. — Dividing the forest into compartments. — The former division into 
compartments has been preserved when it is suitable on the ground: it has only been 
modified as to the former compartments 23 and 24, each of which have been cut in two 
to form the new compartments 23, 24, 25, 26. In order to establish the special felling 
plan the compartments have been divided into three groups. In the first have been 
placed compartments 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 13 which contain the most mature timber, whose 
regeneration should be carried out during the period for exploitation and which there- 
fore will be cut for regeneration. The second group includes compartments 4, 9, 10, 
14, 15, 19, 22 which apparently will come in turn to be regenerated after those of the 
first group. The third group will be formed of the remaining compartments 1, 6, 11, 
16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27; these last two groups will be run over by improve- 
ment and extraction fellings. Consequently the following general felling schedule is 
proposed: 



First group 


Second group 


Third group 




Compart- 
ments 


Cantons 


Compart- 
ments 


Cantons 


Compart- 
ments 


Cantons 


No. 


Area, 
hec- 
tares 


No. 


Area, 
hec- 
tares 


No. 


Area, 
hec- 
tares 


La Lame 


2 
3 
4 
7 
8 
12 
13 


25.62 
10.38 

4.92 
20.09 
11.57 

6.70 
11.35 


Creux Vuillaume. . . 
Creux Vuillaume. . . 

Les Vieilles 


9 
5 

10 
14 
15 
19 
22 


5.96 
20.69 
20.67 
17.51 
10.62 
11.84 

9.46 




1 

6 
11 
16 
17 
18 
20 
21 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 


21 56 




Cret Blanc 




Creux Vuillaume 


9 17 


Pre aux Rets 






7.00 
20.83 

6.49 
17.53 
22.08 
14.77 
17.12 
12.10 
13.13 
16.75 
16.75 


Les Vieilles 


Les Arpents 

Grandes 

Creux du Cerf 


Les Arpents 

Chateau Mergot . . . 
Grandes Chaines . . 
Grandes Chaines. . . 
Creux du Cerf 

Au dessus des 

Granges 

Granges 

Paquis de Vaux .... 


Quart dePlomb 

Grandes Chaines 




90.63 


96.75 


193.43 



506 APPENDIX 

On the other hand, because of the construction of the Frasne-Vallorbe railroad, the 
areas of the compartments enumerated below are reduced as follows : 

Hectares Hectares Hectares 

Compartment 1 = 21.82 - 0.26 = 21.56 
Compartment 12 = 6.93 - 0.23 = 6.70 
Compartment 17 = 6.66 - 0.17 = 6.49 
Compartment 23 = 17.26 - 0.14 = 17.12 

REGENERATION FELLINGS 

Art. 6. — Special fellings schedule for a period of 32 years, 1913-1944. — The 
essential aim of the shelterwood method is to replace a mature stand by young growth 
and the cultural difficulties which accompany this realization consist in its creation 
rather than its development until the merchantable age. In order to attain this result 
it is necessary to mark in the first place the regeneration felling; in order to assure its 
regular and methodical execution, there have been set aside each year for this operation 
a quota of the pre-determined yield. This share is fixed at 1,290 m. c. 

The compartments of the first group include 41,068 m. c; this growth is not counted 
in order to make allowance for the polewood which can be conserved. 

To reaUze on this volume there will be needed ' = 32 or 32 years for the annual 

felling; the exploitation plan will then be 32 years (years 1913-1944). 

The regeneration fellings will be carried out : 

(a) As final felHngs in compartments 12, 13 and 8; (b) as secondary fellings, then 
as final felUngs in compartments 2, 3, 4, and 7. They will be laid out gradually in the 
order indicated above conforming to the rules; they will not pass from one compart- 
ment to the next one until after it has been entirely cut over. 

IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 

They will take place in the compartments of the second and third groups which will 
be cut over so far as possible within 10 or 12 years and in the following order: 20, 21, 
1 22 to 27, 5, 6, 11, 9, 10, 14, to 19. The yield will be recruited after deducting the 
regeneration fellings and the chance cuttings; the area of the annual felling area will 
depend on the volume remaining to be marked. 

Art. 6. — Application of the yield. — In order to realize the yield the local officers 
should at the start mark the regeneration feUing. The volume of the timber 0.60 m. 
(7 inches d. b. h.) and above in circumference cut under this head being known and at 
most equal to 1,290 m. c. they will add to it (if there is any) the volume of windfall 
and overmature timber sold or marked during the current fiscal year. The total will 
be deducted from the ordinary yield and the result of this subtraction will show the 
amount to be cut under improvement fellings. All these volumes will be calculated 
by the volume table used for the valuation of the forest. 

Revision of the Yield. — The yield will be revised for the year 1944 or (if there is 
any) for half the period assigned to the felling schedule in 1930. 

Cultural Rules. — Generally the regeneration and improvement fellings will be 
laid out in accordance with ordinary cultural rules. It seems necessary, however, to 
call local officers' attention to the following points: 

Regeneration fellings — first group. — These fellings must aim to form a young stand; 
seeding of the soil and the substitution within a given period of seedlings, thickets, 
saplings, and young polewood for the existing high forest. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 507 

Where there is not any young growth, the seed feUing should be made at once and 
in opening up the stand carefully avoid giving any hold to the dangerous winds. For 
this purpose it will be best to start with quite large openings, the areas chosen being 
so far as possible amidst vigorous stems with well-developed crowns and long boles, 
leaving groups of 4 to 5 trees so as to best resist the wind. The cover should be opened 
up by taking short branchy trees, poles (growing) on stumps and those which are with- 
out a future. The beech and the weeds which form the bushy under story should be 
cut back. 

Wherever the soil is covered with grass which prevents the germination of the seed, 
the scraping or raking (by strips) of the living cover and the thick layer of needles as 
yet undecomposed will assist the growth of seedlings. 

In order to so far as possible decrease the considerable damage to existing young 
growth caused by too frequent fellings of mature timber and to decrease the windfall, 
the secondary feUings will be reduced to one or two at most; then the final felling will 
take place. These, once commenced, should extend over the entire compartment even 
in the parts not regenerated, for, if after the secondary felling and the freeing of the 
branches, the seeding has not yet taken place it will not come in naturally. Then it 
would be preferable to plant after the removal of the mature timber, selecting the most 
appropriate species either to improve the so il or to establish a mixture which is always 
desirable. Each time the forest is cut over care should be taken to remove ripe timber 
because of its size or poor condition. The medium-sized timber and the poles which 
are damaged, which cannot develop or which hinder reproduction, must be always 
marked in addition to the mature timber. Only reserve the poles and standards in 
groups; every tree, which after growing in a crowded stand becomes isolated, is sure 
to decrease in value and vigor. These regeneration fellings will always be laid out, 
one after the other, and should not pass from a compartment to the next one until it 
has been entirely cut over. At the same time, all the necessary cultural operations 
must be carried out: thinnings in the poles, cleanings in the thickets and saplings. 

Improvement Cuttings. — (1) Compartments of the second group, 5, 9, 10, 14, 
15, 19, 22. The second group includes the compartments which come up for regenera- 
tion after those of the first group. After 30 years there should be a stand ready with 
as many merchantable trees as possible. In these compartments the thinnings will be 
very light, for the stands must be kept dense and the only trees which should be really 
logged are those above the merchantable diameter limit. Thus the promising trees 
whatever their diameter will get a start, and only the trees which are declining in vigor 
and those fully mature, which would diminish in value if left standing longer, will be 
removed. While avoiding an abnormal reproduction it will be possible to give a little 
light to existing young growth. 

(2) Compartments of the third group. In these compartments the trees which 
have reached an exploitable size can be gradually felled and the future stock will be 
opened up so that they can develop with free crowns, but taking good care to keep the 
stand as fully stocked as possible. Everything which covers the soil, even the weeds, 
should be carefully preserved. No effort will be made to start reproduction; if it comes 
in accidentally in any case the poles and young stands will not be sacrificed. On the 
other hand there will be no hesitation in cutting out the overmature timber wherever 
it may be found, where it is suppressing the advance growth (especially in compart- 
ments 1, 20, 21, 23, 24). In the pole stands regular thinnings will be carried out by 
freeing the crowns of the best boles. The beech, being valuable from all viewpoints, 
must not be eliminated. Only the excess beech stems will be cut, but it must be kept 
from taking the place of the conifers. 



508 APPENDIX 



PART IV. — BETTERMENTS 

Only the absolutely essential betterments to be accomplished between 1913 and 1944 
are listed: 

Management Lettering. — The compartments will be marked by painting letters 
on a white background on boundary trees, work which may be estimated at 100 francs. 

Logging Roads. — The existing roads are generally in good condition and are suffi- 
cient for logging purposes. Their maintenance requires an average yearly expense of 
2,000 francs or for 32 years, 64,000 francs. 

Cultural Betterments. — First for restocking the blanks which may occur, and for 
completing the natural reproduction if that should be necessary, it will suffice to esti- 
mate the annual planting of 2,000 trees which will mean a labor expense of 15 francs 
per thousand, or 30 francs and for 32 years, 960 francs. 

Secondly, these plants wiU be furnished by the nursery already established in the 
forest. It has an area of 0.23 of a hectare and its annual maintenance amounts to 120 
francs or for 32 years, 3,840 francs. 

Total, 68,900 francs, or an estimated annual cost of — ^^^ = 2,153 francs ($416). 

PART V. — COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF THE PRODUCTS TO BE REALIZED 
BEFORE AND AFTER THE REVISION OF MANAGEMENT 

The Federal forest of Grande Cote has produced: 

From 1858-1883, 78,343 m. c, valued at 1,327,441 francs; 7.9 m. c. per hectare and 
per year, or 134 francs. 

From 1884-1896, 25,-377 m. c, valued at 395,033 francs; 5.1 m. c. per hectare and 
per year or 82.2 francs. 

From 1897-1911, 48,790 m. c, valued at 924,960 francs; 8.5 m. c. per hectare and 
per year, or 161.6 francs. 

Or for the 54 years, 152,510 m. c, valued at 2,647,434 francs; 7.6 m. c. per hectare 
and per year, or 128.7 francs. 

This puts the average annual yield at 2,888 m. c, valued at 49,026 francs. In the 
future, up to the time the working plan may be revised, the yearly cut wiU be 
3,090 m. c. which should yield about 58,710 francs; in giving an average value of 19 
francs per m. c. which has been the average during the past 15 years, the yield will be 
a Httle higher than for the period 1858-1911, but 5 per cent less than that for the period 
1897-1911. This reduction is actually essential as has been explained in detail in this 
report ; but there is every reason to hope that because of the generally very satisfactory 
growth in the forest of Grande Cote, and due to the good results of the management 
proposed, the yield will increase during future periods. 

Devarennes, 

Inspector of Waters and Forests, Chief of Management. 
Besangon, May 8th, 1912. 

(2) STATE FOREST OF BAN D'ETIVAL 

Near 'St. Die, Vosges, 34.01 hectares, 410-540 meters altitude, 9/10 fir, 1/10 beech. 

(A) Working group, Corne de Lisse, Masson's Method of Yield Calculation. 

During the first cutting period, 1890-1899, the yield was calculated in accordance 

2 V 
with the formula P = -rj-, where P = yield; V = growing stock; and A''= rotation 

in years. 

2 X 12 196 
This resulted in a yield of t-^ or 163 cubic meters, equal to 4.8 cubic meters per 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 509 

hectare per year. At the second cutting period, 1900-1909, the stocktaking showed a total 
stand of 11,881 cubic meters, demonstrating an annual growth of ^^ — ' ":^"~ — ' 

= 4.6 cubic meters per hectare per year. In the words of the author (M. Cuif) : "There 
is no reason for modifying the exploitable size: that of 0.60 of a meter is still acknowl- 
edged to-day, as giving the maximum utility. . . . It is still best to fix at 150 
years the time necessary for the fir to reach this size. Consequently the total growing 
stock taken at the end of 1908, in the Come de Lisse working group, being 13,560.8 
cubic meters, the yield in main products determined by Masson's method is 13,560.8 X 

2 

= 180.8 which corresponds to an average annual yield per hectare of 5.3 cubic meters." 

150 

The plan approved November 23, 1889, provided that in applying the selection 
system the oldest timber should be chosen as well as the trees declining in vigor, rotting 
or dry, and others still in good condition but needed by the owner. Care was taken 
to preserve the selection type of forest, but the entire working group, divided into ten 
parts, had to be completely cut over by the end of each 10-year period. The volume 
of all wood from 0.15 meters up in diameter was subtracted from the prescribed yield, 
whether from ordinary felhngs or from windfall. Actually during the 10-year period 
1890 to 1899 on the 34.01 hectares, 1,902 cubic meters was cut as against 1630 pre- 
scribed, an average per year of 190 as against 160, or 5.6 cubic meters per hectare as 
against 4.8 cubic meters. 

It is quite likely that the stocktaking made in 1898 was in error for some reason un- 
known because the measurements carefully made under the personal direction of M. 
Cuif showed, as follows : 

Cubic meters 

End of 1908 growing season 13,560.8 

Cut 1900-1909 1,967.8 

Total 15,528.6 

Growing stock counted in 1898 11,880.9 

Production 3,647.7 

or .TTTTi — "Tn ~ ^^-^ cubic meters, an inadmissably high rate of growth. 

To make doubly sure of accuracy in 1908, M. Cuif adopted the plan, which he recom- 
mends for all future stocktaking in this working group, of having each tree measured, 
blazed at 1.30 meters above the ground, and at the point measured the guard made a 
vertical scratch so at the next measurement the same point could be calipered. In 
reality the area is a sample plot to determine the value or errors in the Masson method 
of regulating the growth. 

A comparison between the stocktaking of 1888 and 1908 shows that in 1888 the 
average was 358.8 cubic meters per hectare as against 398.7 cubic meters in 1908 and 
that during the 20 years 3,870 cubic meters were realized as against 3,220 cubic meters 
prescribed by the working plan. This enrichment to the extent of 40 cubic meters per 
hectare for the 20 years is welcomed because there was insufficient growing stock on a 
number of areas. M. Cuif remarks: "Must one think, after what we have seen, that 
the calculation of the yield by the Masson method always leads to too small a figure? 
No, because such a conclusion would be contrary to a strongly entrenched theory which 
admits that the use of the Masson per cent certainly brings a forest to the normal, 
provided that the entire stand is promising. To what, then, can be attributed the 
results which fail to corroborate this principle? Simply to the special clause in the 
recruitment of the yield which prescribes the calculation of the volume of all the wood 
cut inclusive of 0.15 in diameter." 



510 APPENDIX 

During the 20-year period the total production was 7.7 cubic meters per hectare per 
year and of tliis total amount 5.8 was in wood 0.45 and above in diameter and only 
1.9 in wood 0.15 to 0.40 inclusive. During this same period the wood cut totaled 5.7 
per hectare per year of which 4.3 was from trees above 0.45 in diameter and 1.4 from 
trees 0.15 to 0.40 inclusive. 

M. Cuif decided to allow the yield to be taken from sound trees 0.45 in diameter if 
necessary to supplement the volume of those over 0.60 to make up the yield. The 
calculation of the yield for 1909-1910 which by the way varies with each compart- 
ment, gives 5.3 per hectare per year as against (a) 5.8 and (b) 7.7, the figures of the 
amount produced (a) in 0.45 meters and over, and (b) total for the last 20 years. 

The improvement fellings in the wood 0.15 to 0.40 in diameter are estimated to yield 
about 1.4 per hectare per year. It is interesting to note that the average prices for 
the period 1889-1898 were 18.34 francs per cubic meter as compared with 23.14 for the 
years 1899-1908. 

The new regulation of felUng then prescribes the year of feUing 1910-1919 inclusive 
the number of the cutting area, the area in hectares, and the total amount in cubic 
meters. Only wood from trees 0.45 and over are to be counted against the yield. 

(B) Naufrogutte working group, Forest of Ban d'Etival. Same as Corne de Lisse 
but volume of fir is 19/20 and beech only 1/20. The area is 34.48 hectares. Method 
of 1883 Yield Regulation. 

The old wood here includes trees 0.45 and over; the average wood 0.25 to 0.40 and 
the small wood below 0.25. A comparison of the stocktakings in 1888 and in 1908 
(that of 1899 appeared inaccurate) shows that: Total volume in m. c. (1888), 10,794.1; 
(1908), 12,363.6; total volume in m. c. cut (1888-1909), 3,404.6. This signifies a pro- 
duction of 7.2 per hectare per year as against 4.9 actual cut. This production was 4.7 
cubic meters in wood 45 and over, and 2.5 in wood 0.15 to 0.40. The actual cut was 
3.6 and over 0.45 and 1.3 in wood 0.15 to 0.40. 

The new cut for 1910 to 1919 is put at 1,822 for the 34.48 hectares and windfalls 
and dead wood 0.20 and over will be deducted from the yield. The selection felling is 
accompanied by an improvement feUing to increase the growth of promising trees 
and to clean or free young stands. 

In the calculation of the yield it is explained that the volume of the large wood (over 
0.45) in 1909 was 7,917 c. m. and the average wood (0.25-0.40) 3,984 c. m. making a 
total of 11,900 of which five-eighths is 7,438 and three-eighths 4,463 c. m. To counter- 
act this excess of large wood Cuif subtracts 479 from the large wood and adds it to 
the average wood and proceeds with the calculation of the yield as given below after 
obtaining a growth per cent for the large wood based on the differences in volume of 
this class of wood in 1888 and 1909 (allowing however for the passage of trees from 
0.40 to the 0.45 class) equal to 0.9 per cent. 

7,438 X 0.009 X 50 ^ ^ g^^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ _5q ^^^^^ (one-third the rotation) 7,438 

plus 1,673 or 9,111 equal to ^^ = 182.2 cubic meters per year or 5.2 per hectare. 

No allowance is made for the growth of the average wood since that will merely fill 
the place left by the removal of the large wood. 

It is interesting to note that the cut for 1888-1899 was calculated at 4.5 c. m. and 
for 1899 to 1908 at 4.4 c. m. per hectare and per year. Figures which are clearly below 
the growth as is also the current figure of 5.2 but a comparison of the curve showing 
the estimated normal number of trees per hectare for each diameter class (based on 
averages of a number of (empirically) normally stocked selection stands) shows that 
the forest is poor in trees 0.15 to 0.35 in diameter and that consequently the economy 
will be welcome. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 511 

(C) Working group Rein des Boules, Forest of Ban d'Etival altitude of 510 meters, 
37.04 forested. Species by volume, fir 69 per cent, beech 31 per cent; selection. Yield 
by number of trees. 

By the decree of October 15, 1885, approved November 27, 1886, the working group 
was divided into ten approximately equal felling areas and an annual yield of 41 trees 
at least 0.30 in diameter at 1.30 c. m. (about 16 fir and 25 beech) was established includ- 
ing the provision that windfalls 0.30 and over would count as part of the yield. The 
41 trees to be cut were based on the estimate that the growth was 4.5 c. m. per hectare 
and per year and that the fir of 0.60 meters in diameter contained 3.7 c. m. and the 
beech of the same size 4.4. On the basis that four fir would be cut to every six beech 
the average volume per tree was taken at 4.12. Owing to windfalls, etc., they cut 
38 fir and 12 beech or 50 trees per year during the years 1886 to 1895, but as a matter 
of fact the average volume was only 2.8 per tree. During the second cutting cycle 
the cut was actually 54.9 trees and over per year (8.9 accidental) with an average volume 
of 4 c. m. per tree. Actually during the first 29 years the production was 9.4 cubic 
meters per hectare and per year or 8 in wood 0.45 and above and 1.4 in wood 0.15 to 
0.40. The working plans officer quotes what is considered an average selection hectare 
for the locality, namely, a total of 434.5 trees cubing 388.2 cubic meters. 

In the calculation of the new yield the author, M. Cuif, proceeded as foUows: During 
the 20 years 1885-1905 the average production was 58 trees — 31 fir and 27 beech. 
"The 31 fir and 27 beech have been furnished actually by the trees 0.40 in diameter 
whose average number may be valued as follows, taking 771 as existing in 1885 (429 
fir and 342 beech), 1,004 in 1896 (392 fir and 612 beech) an average of 412 fir and 463 
beech; 412 fir 0.40 in diameter have given each year, 31 fir to be counted against the 
yield or 7.5 per cent and 463 beech, 27 beech or 5.8 per cent." Similarly the per cent 
passing to the next diameter class is figured, and the following results obtained: 

Diameter Average per cent of passage 

(cm.) to next diameter class 

40 6.6 

60 7.7 

60 8.2 

70 9.6 

80 10 

90 12 

Finally the writer calculates for each compartment or cutting area the normal number 
of trees to cut, and in addition one-quarter the excess over the normal stand also to be 
cut, in order to reduce the growing stock, namely, 540 normal cut plus 160 trees as 
one-quarter the excess or 700 in all on 37.04 hectares. This is then divided between 
beech and fir on the basis of their per cent in each compartment. 

One cannot but ask the question: "Why regulate the yield by number of trees if 
it has to be checked by a volume computation?" But it must be recalled that these 
three working groups are really large scale experiments on yield regulation; the con- 
clusioas will probably be available by 1921 or 1931. 

(3) COMMUNAL FOREST OF MONT GLORE (SAVOIE) 

The working plan of 1885 quotes from a report dated 1842 which alludes to this for- 
est as "Abused, impoverished in 1835 by a cut every three years of 150 fir trees." In 
other words, the yield was by number of trees (and probably the best were unfortunately 
selected) instead of by volume. This report spoke of this forest as having 90 hectares 
stocked with fir, 90 with beech with a fir under-story, and 145 pure beech coppice, making 
a total of 335 hectares of forest. The management prescribed thinnings on one-fifteenth 



512 APPENDIX 

of the area each year. There were, in addition, regular fellings and cleanings. In 1885, 
selection fellings were prescribed because of "the altitude, the rigorous climate, and the 
slowness of regeneration of the important species." The cut was placed at 202 cubic 
meters per year, but 5 per cent was reserved for betterments. The diameter limit for the 
exploitable tree was 0.6 meter (23.6 inches d. b. h.) on a rotation of 140 years. According 
to the working plan now in force, the selection method will be continued and the yield 
prescribed at 144 cubic meters. In other words the results of past cuttings show an over- 
cut and it is now necessary to economize in order to bring the forest to a better producing 
capacity. Before the yearly cut is marked, the forest is reconnoitred in the spring for 
windfall and the total amount of windfall is subtracted from the total yield which is then 
secured, first, from dry and dying trees and from trees which must be felled to free fir 
seedlings or to establish or start reproduction when it does not exist. The best trees are 
favored. Fir over 0.6 meter in diameter are cut, taking the best first. The cutting is 
especially conservative along very steep slopes, and where too heavy cutting might 
encourage the formation of torrents and thus destroy agricultural land lying below. 

The following improvement work is planned: A scenic -road, a house for a guard, 
numerous plantations, and, according to the working plan, "there is much left to be 
done — there is a considerable danger from floods." 

(4) COMMUNAL FOREST OF LARDIES (NEAR OLORON, BASSES-PYRENEES) 

This communal forest comprises 88.35 hectares at an average altitude of 130 meters. 
There is pedunculate oak growing on an alluvial soil with a mild climate. From 1883 
to 1905, inclusive, 215 cubic meters were cut, valued at 1,381.10 francs. From 1886 to 
1905, inclusive, the improvement cuttings covered 1.8 hectares annually and netted 
249.40 francs. The sales from windfall, aggregating 133 cubic meters, netted 530.90 
francs and the secondary products 702.2 francs. This gave a total revenue of 348 cubic 
meters or 2,865.6 francs. The normal yield was estimated at 309 cubic meters or 2,614.7 
francs. In this forest the soil value is very small because it is often flooded; it is esti- 
mated at about 50 francs per acre. The local market is for firewood and the timber is 
sold at Pau. There is communal grazing by 300 head of cattle, 50 horses, and 200 hogs, 
yielding 100 francs per year. 

According to the inspector: "The up-keep of a nursery in a small forest is relatively 
dear." 

This points to the advisability of district nurseries where transport is possible and 
where the planting is on a smaU scale. Here the exploitability is based on economic 
factors rather than physical. At 20 years of age, trees are about 5 meters apart. Shortly 
after 70 years of age, there is a heavy thinning so as to keep the trees about 10 meters 
apart until the final cutting. 

The yield of this regular high forest of oak is calculated by volume for the regular 
fellings, by dividing the total volume of the area to be cut over by the number of years 
in the period and subtracting 25 per cent for reserve. The yield of thinnings is fixed by 
area. There were cleanings in 1912, 1920, and 1922. The revenue for the next period is 
estimated at 2,805 francs. 

(6) STATE FOREST OF LA JOUX (JURA) 

Contains 2,644.34 hectares; 700 to 930 altitude; fir, 91 per cent; spruce, 8| percent; 
beech, § of 1 per cent. Highest yield in the Jura. 

The following figures on the first working group are quoted from the working plan 
for the State forest of La Joux, by Inspecteur Brenot, which is dated April 29, 1896. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 513 

From 1884 to 1895 the increment per hectare and per year has been 11.97; the volume 
for the average hectare, 385. The increment per cent, 3.11. 

In 1883 the volume analysis of trees 0.30 in diameter and above was: Logs, 206,058 
cubic meters; branches, 18 per cent, 37,090 cubic meters; total, 243,148 cubic meters. 

This being true it is possible to make the following conclusions from a comparison of 
the stocktaking of 1883 and 1908: Volume of trees 0.30 in diameter and above, inven- 
tories in 1883, 243,148 cubic meters; in 1908, 325,675 cubic meters; increase, 82,527 
cubic meters. 

Volume of trees cut from 1884 to 1908: 1884 to 1885, 60,280; 1896 to 1908, 100,731; 
total of 161,011 cubic meters. 

Total growth from 1883 to 1908 = 82,527 + 161,011 = 243,538 cubic meters or 

average per year of 9,741 cubic meters. 

, , 243,148 + 325,675 „„. .„. , . , 
Average growing stock — '- ^- = 284,406 cubic meters. 

Average volume per hectare 284,406 ^ ^^3 ^^^j^ ^^^^^^ 

640.89 

243 538 
Growth per hectare and per year ' - = 15.2 cubic meters. 

^ 15.2 X 100 „ " , 

Increment per cent jj^ = 3.4 per cent. 

It results from the analysis of the preceding stocktakings (the volume per hectare 
was 380 cubic meters in 1883 and 500 cubic meters in 1908 (wood 0.30 and over)) that 
the growth per hectare and per year estimated at 11.97 cubic meters for the first 12 
years of growth is between 3.11 and 3.40 per cent. 

These figures prove . . . that we have a working group overstocked with old 
wood, where for the past 25 years the material has been increasing in spite of the annual 
cut (yield). ... 

In view of this rather abnormal situation, it is felt that in order to prevent a further 
accumulation of excess growing stock it is best to base the yield upon the growth per cent 
of the working group during the last period of 25 years by multiplying the estimated 
growing stock by the mean annual growth per cent. 

Material enumerated in 1908 = 301,260; growth per cent from 1883 to 1908 = 3.4; 

. ,, 301,260 X 3.4 ,_^„ 
yield = — '-j^ = 10,242. 

Note. — For the comparison the same volume table was used to obtain both volumes, 
i.e., in 1883 and 1908. 

If we should only cut as in the past, the average annual growth of the working group, 
it would be impossible to realize with sufficient rapidity the overmature material and it 
is feared the present state of affairs would continue indefinitely. It is therefore felt 
to be absolutely necessary . . . during two periods ... to add 10 per cent 
of the volume to the yield obtained and to fix (the cut) at 10,242 + 1,024 = 11,266 
cubic meters, or, roughly, 11,270 cubic meters equal to 17.585 per hectare and per year 
and 3.7 per cent of the total growing stock. 

According to Inspecteur Devarennes "the State forest of La Joux ^ is one of the richest 
and most productive fir stands in France, and perhaps even of all Europe." The stock- 
taking made in 1908-1909 gave the following figures: 642,138 trees from 7.9 to 55.1 
inches in diameter (245 trees or 463 cubic meters per hectare or about 4^,400 feet 
hoard measure per acre, average on 6,531 acres). This is equal to 15.8 cubic meters per 
hectare per year (a yield per cent of 5.3) or about 1,200 board feet and 1.6 cords per acre 

1 This forest was logged by the Canadians for the French; the cutting started in 1917 
before the A. E. F. arrived in France. 



514 



APPENDIX 



per year, worth $12 per acre. The total annual revenue from timber is 406,730 francs 
($84,500) and the soil and growing stock are estimated to be worth 20 milhon francs 
($3,860,000). Deducting 50 cents an acre for taxes and administration, this gives a 
net of $81,235 or about 2 per cent on the invested capital (see p. 322). A comparison 
of the normal (empirical) number of trees and stand per hectare with the actual stock 
is given in the graph which follows : 



90 




















































































l~ 






















































































85 






















































































\ 




















































































80 


\ 




















































































\ 


















































































7.5 


' 


























NUMBER 


OF TREES PEF 

oi-mal 


HECTARE 


























































N 




































70 




\ 
































Actual 


























' 










\ 


















































































65 




\ 




















































































\ 


















































































60 






1 




































































































































































55 






\ 




































































































































































50 


- 






^ 


















































































\ 














































































45 








\ 






















































































I 












































































40 


V 








\ 












































































\ 








\ 












































































35 




\ 








\ 














































































\ 
















































































30 












— 


\ 


^ 




















































































^ 


\ 




































































25 


















k 


S, 


















































































> 


V 


































































20 




















\ 


^ 




















































































k 


k 






























































15 
























\' 


S 






















































































V 


























































10 




























\ 


N 




















































































^> 


V 






















































5 


































V. 


'^ 




















































































^ 


^. 

























































































--| 




.-_ 




■~ 


~ 






_ 











































































































~ 


0. 


20 


0. 


i5 


0. 


30 


0. 


35 


0. 


to 


0. 


13 


0. 


iO 


0. 


55 


0. 


SO 


0. 


55 


0. 


-0 


0. 


-5 


0. 


80 


0. 


85 


Or 


90 


0, 


)5 


1. 


}0 


1. 


)5 


1. 


10 


1. 


15 


1. 


20 


Ui. 



D.B.H. in Centimeters 





















































































60 






















































































































2 


VOLUME PER U 


ECTARE 
























55 










































































































































































50 














































































































s 




























































45 


















/ 










N 








































































/ 




-■ 


.. 








s 
























































40 
































s 


































































/ 














\ 




V 






















































35 








• 




/ 






















S 






























































/ 




















s 




s 


















































30 




^ 






/ 






















> 






\ 
























































/ 






























\ 














































25 








/ 




























\ 






s 


















































/ 






























i( 






s 










































20 






y 
































> 




















































/ 


































\ 






N 








































15 


^ 


/ 














































s 






















































































\ 


































10 














































^ 








s 












































































N 










N 


s 




























5 




























































^ 












































































■^ 














^ 


. 









































































^« 


































_ 






_ 




_] 


L- 












_ 


, 


^ 






L 






^ 




^_ 




_ 
















. 














_ 


L 



0.30 0.35 0.10 0.15 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1,25 

D.B.H. in Centimeters 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



515 



(6) COMMUNAL FOREST OF FILLINGES (HAUTE-SAVOIE) 

In the revision of the working plan for the communal forest of Fillinges, there is pre- 
sented an excellent example of what recovery a forest can make during a period of 19 
years. The inventory in 1891 and 1910 follows: 



1891 


1910 


Age classes 


Number 
of trees 


Volume, 
cu. in. 


Age classes 


Number 
of trees 


Volume, 
cu. in. 


Average wood 

Old wood 


5,337 
694 


2,117 
1,.386 


Average wood 

Old wood. . 


8,527 
2,397 


4,213 

4,785 








Totals 


6,031 


3,503 


Totals 


10,924 


8,998 





According to the above table the percentage of volume increase was 157 per cent in 
19 years. The growth in this case, of course, was exaggerated because many trees just 
below 20 centimeters in diameter passed into the merchantable class which was calipered 
in the revision. Taking these figures, however, as correct, it means an average growth 
of 8.7 cubic meters per hectare per year for a forest which had been mismanaged in the 
past. According to the original working plan: 

"The working group has been completely transformed in the course of a period. The 
stand formerly very broken, open, often formed of sparse groups of conifers or isolated 
trees as it existed in 1891 has given place to a thrifty young selection forest sometimes 
even dense, which is rapidly beginning to suppress the broadleaf understory with which 
the conifers are still in mixture at certain points. It is to be regretted, however, that the 
small yield did not allow cutting over the entire working group by selection fellings 
during the period and that consequently several compartments are crowded with over- 
mature and deformed trees." 

In the second working group, the recovery (for average and old wood) was from 12,265 
cubic meters to 27,452 cubic meters in 19 years; 124 per cent. In five compartments of 
the first working group, the growth averaged 8.7 cubic meters per hectare per year, 
and in 14 compartments of the second working group the same average rate of growth 
was maintained, varying from 4 to 11.5 cubic meters per hectare per year. It is interest- 
ing to note that the yield was formerly fixed at 157 cubic meters per year for the entire 
forest of 166.45 hectares. According to SchaefTer's revision of 1910, the entire forest 
was thrown into one working group. He figured the old wood at 16,048 cubic meters 



and the deficit of old wood was 



32,802 X 5 



or a total of 20,501, meaning a deficit of 



4,453 cubic meters. The average wood amounted to 16,754.2, an excess, since 

32 802 X 3 

— '- — ^ = a total of 12,301. Therefore, in accordance with the procedures ex- 

o 

plained on page 234, trees 0.35 meter in diameter were transferred to the old wood, 
thus justifying still further economy of yield. Since the rotation was fixed at 162 
years, the yield under this formula would be 16,048, the volume of the old wood 
divided by 54, one-third the rotation, would be 297.1 plus 1 per cent of the growth of 
the average wood (i.e. 1 per cent of 16,754, or 167.5) making a total estimated cut of 
464.6 which equals 1.41 per cent of the volume, or 3.2 cubic meters per hectare per 
year. In the working plan, Schaeffer pointed out that the growth, according to 
Pressler's formula, would have been 654.16 cubic meters per year. This working plan 
is an example of how the French are rehabilitating worn out forests; one-quarter of the 



516 



APPENDIX 



theoretical cut is held in reserve to provide for such emergencies as windfall and other 
damages so that the actual cut is prescribed at 348 cubic meters per year, which is 
obviously much less than the actual growth. The working plan provides that the 
whole area be cut over by improvement fellings every 17 years. 



(7) COMMUNAL FOREST OF BURDIGNIN (HAUTE- SAVOIE) 

The working plan for the communal forest of Burdignin, written by Schaeffer in 1897, 
presents another interesting example of French yield regulation. This forest comprises 
67.11 hectares, is situated at an altitude of 1,300 meters and the stand is composed of 
spruce, 80 per cent; fir, IS per cent; beech, 1 per cent; Austrian pine and larch, 1 per 
cent. Schaeffer calls it a model of regularity especially as regards the second and third 
periodic blocks. The yield was formerly fixed at 136 cubic meters per j^ear. A period 
of 18 years was found too short to get satisfactory and complete regeneration in the 
first periodic block. The yield from thinnings has been irregular. In 1881 it was 15 
cubic meters; in 1882, 22 cubic meters; in 1890, 222 cubic meters; in 1891 and 1894, 
but 75 cubic meters. The rotation was 120 years and the diameter limit was 0.40; 
the period was fixed at 20 years in the 1897 working plan. The cut prescribed was 280 
cubic meters by volume with the addition of the improvement fellings yield on 5.63 
hectares each year. According to Schaeffer, care was to be taken not to open up the 
stand too fast and the thinnings had to aim at developing the stand without making 
sacrifices to regularize it. Trees without a future were removed, but he aimed at 
keeping the top cover complete. In the older stands the thinnings were essentially 
crown thinnings. (Par le haut.) 

The following analysis of the stand was made in Schaeffer's working plan : 

"To determine the yield, it is necessary to first divide the stand enumerated in three 
groups or classes (young wood, average wood, and old wood). We consider the coni- 
fers 16 inches and over in diameter ' old wood ' and the beech 12 inches and over . . . 
the conifers 8 to 14 inches, and the beech 8 to 10 inches 'average wood,' and the trees 
6 inches 'small wood.' This division has been made in the following table: 



Species 


Volumes 


Young wood 


Average wood 


Old wood 


Totals 


Conifers 

Beech 


405.10 


9,205.60 
91.80 


8,564.70 
87.10 


18,175.40 
178.90 


Totals 


405.10 


9,297.40 


8,651.80 


18,354.30 



"It is evident from this table that the normal proportion of five to three which 
should exist between the large wood and the average wood is far from being attained. 
To obtain it one must transfer 2,567 cubic meters (or about two-thirds the conifers 14 
inches in diameter) from the average wood class to the old wood. We consider this 
transfer justified because a 16-inch tree is considered merchantable in this region and 
most of the 14-inch stems will reach this size during the period. We, moreover, propose 
(to avoid any disaster) not to. count the future growth of the old wood . . . 
prudence and moderation. 

"The volume to be cut during the one-third of the rotation will then be: 8,651.8 + 

11 219 
2,567 = 11,219 cubic meters in round figures, when the yield will be: ' = 280 

cubic meters. 

"The thinnings are already ordered (September 18, 1880), by nine year cycles; they 
have given good results and we propose to continue them. Since the periodic blocks 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 517 

to be run over by thinnings are three in number, each will continue to form three felhns 

, .„ , 17.02 + 16.79 + 16.86 50.67 ,,„, 
areas whose average area will be: = — — = 5.63 hectares. 

"There are four periodic blocks; one is cut over for regeneration, and the other three 
are cut over for thinnings, etc." 

(8) STATE FOREST OF PARC-ET-ST. QUENTIN (OISE) 

The State forest of Parc-et-St. Quentin has had working plans made in 1869, 1884, 
and 1905. As a result of experience a rotation of 120 years was found too short, because 
of the large proportion of oak. It was, therefore, increased to 150 years. According to 
the most recent working plan, there are two classes of stands: (1) Regeneration 
areas over 100 years old; (2) under 100 years old, not under regeneration. 

"One observes at once that, after this classification, the group of old wood will be 
totally deficient and that there exists a deficiency in the age sequences between the ripe 
wood and that which comes next." 

According to the 1905 revision (page 47, original working plan) : 

"The yield of the principal feUing areas will be obtained by dividing the volume 

of the stand in compartments 7, 8, and 9 (to be regenerated 1904 to 1923) by 20. This 

26 739 29 
volume amounts to 26,739.29 cubic meters and the yield will be fixed at — '- '■ — or 

1,337 cubic meters. During the same period of 20 years the yield of the improvement 

fellings by area will cover — '■ — — r or 67.43 hectares because the cuttmg cycle is 

10 years." 

Where there is difficulty in regeneration, the cuttings should be regulated according 
to seed crops rather than to the sequence of felhngs as developed. According to the plan : 

"The density of the seed fellings will be regulated so as to allow for the requirements 
of the species — oak and beech — which should be forced into the proper mi.xture, 
(about half and half). The existing understory must be completely removed alDove 
this size and under no pretext whatever should it be allowed to form part of the future 
stand. The seed fellings will be followed by secondary and final felHngs laid out exclu- 
sively according to the cultural needs. The improvement cuttings should aim at the 
establishment of a high forest with a suitable mixture of species and as fully stocked as 
possible; they will be carried out by the use of regular normal thinnings, the removals 
limited to trees already dead or almost wholly so. . . . In the young stands the 
valuable species will be carefully freed, and in accordance with their needs the soft woods 
and species of secondary value will be sacrificed." 

(9) COMMUNAL FOREST OF THIEZ (HAUTE-SAVOIE) « 

PART I 

Record of M.\nagement. — General Data 

Art. 1. — Name. — Communal Forest of Thiez. 

Art. 2. — Area. — In 1866 the area of the forest was 152.7669 hectares; it was 
reduced to 119.51 hectares by the revised decree of January 31, 1872. A decree dated 
Jime 28, 1889, authorized the sale of 22.08 hectares and put the area under manage- 
ment at 97.43 hectares. Finally a new decree. April 11, 1900, reduced the area to 
65.14 hectares. 

Our recent survey gives an area of 61.54 hectares, divided as follows between the two 
cantons which compose the forest : 

2 Savoie was formally ceded to France in 1860 and prior to this date communal 
forests were badly overcut and mismanaged. 



518 



APPENDIX 



Canton 


Area 


Blanks* 


Forested 


La Vuardaz 


26.74 
34.80 


1.70 
3.60 


25 04 


Le Pera}' 


31.20 


Totals 


61.54 


5.30 


56 24 







* Most of the blanks are rocky and consequently could hardly be forested. 

The disparity in area of 3.60 hectares (65.14 — 61.54 = 3.60) is due to the inaccurate 
data upon which the original area computation was based; it has not been corrected 
until now. 

Art. 3. — Boundaries. — Except bordering the Commune of Chatillon (Haute- 
Savoie) a boundary established when the working plan for that forest was made, the 
boundaries were very indefinite. We have made a general survey of the boundary 
and have established corners for the two stands in accordance with the map of 1730 
which is sufficiently accurate. Every corner and boundary rock marked with a cross 
has its numerical order carefully chiseled as given in the working-plan map. These 39 
boundary marks are divided as follows: Le Peray, IS (3 of these coincide with the num- 
bers for the communal forest of Chatillon); La Vuardaz, 21; Total, 39. 

Art. 4. — Rights and servitudes. — None. 

Art. 5. — Topography and drainage. — Occupying the summit of Mt. Orsay 
("Orchez" according to the army map) a point at which the range ends which separates 
the valleys of GifTre and Arje and dominates their heads, the forest therefore lies on 
north and south slopes. The extreme altitudes are 620 meters (lower part of the 
Peray Canton) and 1,346 meters (summit of Vuardaz), or an average of 980 meters. 
The slopes are often very steep and occasionally precipitous near the summit; within 
the forest there are cliffs 100 meters in height. 

Art. 6. — Soil. — Despite its small area the forest stands on a number of different 
geological formations which can be classed as follows: 

Calcaire liasque du Chablais (5^) 

Bathonien et Bajocien (7) 

Malm (12) 

Cretace superieur dit couche rouge (17) 

Moraine Alpine (21) 

The figures enclosed in parentheses show approximately the area occupied by each 
(geologic) soil. Because of this diversity of mineral bases soils of very different character 
have resulted. Marls deep and fresh, occasionally actually wet, arid detritus, bare 
limestones or only slightly covered with a thin layer of humus are found side by side; 
the fertiUty itself is extremely variable. One must admit that the poor or mediocre 
areas are the rule rather than the exception and that the really rich soils are scarce. 

Art. 7. — Climate. — Since the two stands are situated in different valleys it 
naturally follows that the climate is also dissimilar. On the one hand the Canton of 
Vuardaz, with a northern exposure, is in a rainy valley where the snow lies four months 
each year, while the vineyards still flourish just below in the Peray Canton. 

Art. 8. — ■ Stand. — The chief species are spruce, fir, Scotch pine, and beech. 
Spruce, which is easily the most important, varies a great deal. From the straight, 
cylindrical long-boled well-pruned tree 35 meters in height (115 feet!) in the well watered 
valley of Vuardaz, which one cannot help but admire, to the branchy unstable stem 
which clings to the rock on the Orsay peak. In the Peray Canton it is represented by 
sapling stands, dense and regular, but because of the dry soil and climate these do not 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



519 



appear to have much of a future. The fine quaUty of timber at the Vuardaz bridge 
makes it a prize for the lumberman; yet on the moist soils there seems to be a tendency 
to early decay. The fir perhaps is a more rapid grower, and notwithstanding that its 
wood is less sought after in the region, it is a valuable species because it is easy to re- 
generate. The Scotch pine, introduced artificially, when found in the Peray Canton 
in mixture with scattering larch, seems well suited to the situation; but the stock which 
has come in naturally, often very defective, has suffered a great deal from caterpillars 
and the wood has little value. The beech is quite important in the understory, but 
with the exception of a few poles, it is not represented in the young stands; yet, because 
of its cultural value, it ought to have a place in the mature stands. Its litter can alle- 
viate the acidity of the humus produced under the spruce and also assists the natural 
regeneration of this latter species. The oak is at its extreme elevation and is not im- 
portant, except in the rocky areas, where, with the maples (sycamore, etc.), it serves 
to protect the soil. One sees a few hnden, service trees, and hazel, which have some 
value. To sum up, the importance of the species is shown by the following figures: 
Spruce, 62 per cent; fir, 2 per cent; pine, 11 per cent; oak, 10 per cent; beech, 10 per 
cent; miscellaneous, 5 per cent. 

Art. 9. — Chief and accessory products. — The following table shows the amount 
and value of the products realized during the last 10 years: 



YIELD DURING THE LAST 10 YEARS 

WOOD PRODUCTS 





Regular fellings 


Extraordinary felling.? 






Windfall, 






Years 


Coppice 


ae, 
ica 


High forest 


(Coppice) 
Improve- 
ment 


High forest 


Emergency 
wood 


dead wood 
and tres- 
pass 


Totals 




Vol- 
ume, 
m. c. 


Val 
frai 


Vol- 
ume, 
m. c. 


Value, 
francs 


Vol- 
ume, 
m. c. 


Value, 
francs 


Vol- 
ume, 
m. c. 


Value, 
francs 


Vol- 
ume, 
•'m. c. 


Value, 
francs 


Vol- 
ume, 
m. c. 


Value, 
francs 


Vol- 
ume, 
m. c. 


Value, 
francs 


1901... 
1902... 
1903... 
1904... 
1905... 
1906... 
1907... 
1908... 
1909... 
1910... 




















65 


130 


136 
115 


1525 
2290 


2 
8 
4 

10 
4 
6 

21 


20 
128 

64 
174 

64 

90 
273 


30 
21 
23 
20 
29 
45 
38 
1 
104 
17 


375 
212 
165 
250 
270 
435 
300 
20 
1237 
175 


32 
29 
27 
30 
169 
51 
59 
1 
169 
132 


395 
340 
229 
424 
1859 
525 
573 
20 
1367 
2465 


Totals 












65 


130 


251 


3815 


55 


813 


328 


3439 


699 


8197 








Average annual 








6.5 


13 


25.1 


381.5 


5.5 


81.3 


32.8 


343.9 


69.9 


819.7 


Price 


per 


cu 


b 


cm 


eter 










2 




15.20 




14.8 




10.5 




11.7 



520 



APPENDIX 



ACCESSORY PRODUCTS 



Years 


Extension 

of cutting 

period 


Miscel- 
laneous 

concessions 

(springs, 

rights of 

way, 

stone, 

sand, etc.) 


Minor 

products, 

value of 

day's labor 


Grazing, 
value 


Hunt, 
rental 


Trespass, 

civic 
damages 


Totals 


1901 




4 


37.50 
37.50 
37.50 
25.00 
62.50 
30.00 
42.50 
35.00 
40.00 
40.00 






4.00 


45.50 


1902 








37.50 


1903 




3 






13.80 


40.50 


1904 








38.80 


1905 








26 
26 
26 
11 
11 
11 




88.50 


1906 








13.50 
93.00 
28.00 


56.00 


1907 








82.00 


1908 








139.00 


1909 








79.00 


1910 










51.00 


Totals 




7 


387.50 




111 


152.30 


657.80 










Average annual . . 




0.7 


38.75 




11.1 


15.23 


65.78 









Art. 10. — Roads, trails, and means of removal. — There are no regular roads in 
the forest (only a few trails traversing the stand), but at the bottom of each canton 
there is a mule trail. That part which borders the Canton of Vuardaz joins the national 
road No. 202; this enables the hauling of wood to the Taninges station (narrow gauge), 
4.6 kilometers away. The area bordering the Peray Canton almost touches the main 
road from the pass of Chatillon to Bonneville via Marignier (P. L. M. station, 4 kilo- 
meters). 

Art. 11. — Markets. — The fire wood is used locally, while the logs (owing to the 
railroads in each valley) have a wide market. 

Art. 12. — Grazing, etc. — None. 

Art. 13. — Patrol. — The patrol is done by two guards, one belonging to the Tan- 
inges ranger district, the other to Cluses. Their residences are at Taninges and Cluses. 

PART II 

Chapter I. — Statement and Critical Review of Treatment in Force 

By a decision of the director, dated June 13, 1873, the forest of Thiez was divided into 
two working groups, one coppice, the other high forest. The coppice working group 
having been entirely disposed of since 1873 there is nothing to report. The high forest 
working group has been cut over during a period of 15 years by improvement cuttings 
amounting to 4.34 hectares each year. This period of 15 years ended in 1888. Since 
this date the forest has only been cut under emergency fellings except for an improve- 
ment felling in 1909 of 8.68 hectares, and in two or three selection cuttings only windfall 
or overmature timber was removed. While the regular fellings have been few in number, 
the same cannot be said of the trespass cuttings, for almost all the stock of the Peray 
Canton has been cut by trespassers. It is essential to regulate the fellings and to deter- 
mine a yield based upon an exact estimate of the forest's resources. This is the object 
of this work. 

Chapter II. — Basis of Proposed Management 

A conifer stand with such a small stock can only be treated by the selection system. 
We propose to put the entire area into a single working group of selection high forest. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



521 



PART III 

Special Study of the Working Group 

Art. 1. — Compartments. — It has been laid out according to natural boundaries 
such as roads or ravines following current usage. Each compartment has been marked 
and designated with capital letters. Their area varies from 2.11 hectares to 8.46 
hectares, an average of 5.28; this is in keeping with the size of the forest. 
The forest description follows: (Sample given on pages 532 and 533). 
Art. 2. — Exploitability, rotation, periods. —A tree 0.60 meter (23.6 inches d.b.h.) 
in diameter is best suited to the sale requirements. A smaller size would not be adapted 
to all uses, while a large size would make lumbering too difficult. We shall therefore 
adopt 0.60 meter as the exploitable size. 

To reach this size a tree requires at least 140 years. If you glance over the curves 
inserted in the Appendix (page 528) it is evident that the spruce and fir take on an 
average 16 years to pass from one diameter class (2 inches) to another; it follows that 
to pass through the diameter classes from 6 inches to 24 inches takes 144 years. In 
fixing the rotation at this figure we are overlooking the length of time that a tree takes 
to pass from the understory, and recent studies have shown that this method of pro- 
cedure is legitimate. It seems logical to choose 16 years as the period since it takes 
that length of time to pass from one diameter class to another. 

Art. 3. — Regulation of felling. — The compartments A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, 
and M only carry a growing stock which can be inventoried. These are the only com- 
partments to be cut over by selection cuttings based on volume. The compartments 
H and K, stocked solely with young growth, will be run over by improvement cuttings 
based on area. On the formal request of the commune (which, while wishing to sell 
the principal cuttings, desires to provide for the residents a small right to gather hard- 
wood fuel) these shall be filled by improvement cuttings in the compartments C, D, 
E, F, G, I, L, and M. The table below gives a resume of these plans: 



Canton 


Compartment 


Area 


Extent of selection 


Improvement 
fellings 


La Vuardaz 

Le Peray 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 

K 
L 
M 


6.11 
5.24 
2.17 
4.70 
2.95 
3.46 
2.11 
6.78 
7.74 
4.68 
7.14 
8.46 


6.11 
5.24 
2.17 
4.70 
2.95 
3.46 
2.11 

7^74 

7.14 

8.46 


2.17 
3.00 
1.00 
2.00 
1.00 
6.78 
7.74 
4.68 
7.14 
8.46 








61.54 


50.08 


43.97 



A. - FELLINGS BY VOLUME 
Art. 4. — Determination of the yield. — The yield will be calculated in accord- 
ance with the method given in the circular of July 17, 1883, which consists in dividing 
the wood in three groups in accordance with their size: (1) The young wood whose 
diameter is less than one-third the exploitable size. (2) The average wood whose 
diameter is included between one-third and two-thirds this size. (3) The old wood 
whose diameter is more than two-thirds this size. 



522 



APPENDIX 



If the volume of old wood and that of average wood are to each other as 5 is to 3 
it is a normal proportion, and if not it is possible to decrease or even the difference by 
approximate transfers. Then the final volume of old wood plus its growth is divided by 
one-third the number of years in the rotation. The trees have been cahpered by 2-inch 
diameter classes, commencing with 8 inches, and the volumes figured with the volume 
table made by M. Algan (No. 11 for the fir and spruce and No. 5 for the pine and broad- 
leaved trees). 

The following table gives the division by groups and diameter classes : 



Diameters (d. b. h.), 
centimeters 


Volume of average wood 


^'oIume of old wood 


Spruce and fir 


Pine 


Total 


Spruce and fir 


Pine 


Total 


20 (7.8 inches).. 


348.4 
486.8 
523.2 
639.9 


7.6 


356.0 
491.0 

528.9 
642.9 








25 


4 
5 
3 


2 

7 







30 






35 












40 (15.7 inches). 










895.2 

684.8 
399.0 
249.6 
160.0 


2.8 


898 


45 






684 8 


50 






399 


55 






249 6 


60 (23.6 inches) 






160 










65 










72.2 
36.0 
20.8 
18.0 




72 2 


70 






36 


75 






20 8 


80 (31.5 inches). 






18.0 










Totals 


1,998.3 


20 


5 


2,018.8 


2,535.6 


2.8 


2,538.4 



The normal proportion should be : 

Old wood 4,557.2 X 5/8 = 2,848.3 \ . rry o 

Average wood 4,557.2 X 3/8 = 1,708.9 j^'*^^'-^' 

For the transfer as prescribed by the method the only change which is justified is 
by the abundance of overmature timber in the lower diameter classes which means that 
the yield would be: 

2,848.3 



P = 



48 



59 cubic meters. 



But on the other hand in this forest the growth cannot be overlooked (see table 
of growth per cent in the Appendix) and we intend to count that of the old wood during 
half of the period (conservative estimate of growth at 1 per cent per year). The yield 
wall thus become: 



P = 



2,848.3 4- THo- X 24 X 2,848.2 
48 



= 73.58 or 74 in round figures. 



This yield, which corresponds to 1.62 per cent of the cahpered material and is 1.6 
cubic meters per hectare per year for the forested area, is not too large but fully provides 
for the small growing stock (and the consequent necessity for economy). 

B. — AREA FELLINGS 

The area to be cut over by improvement cuttings being 43.97 hectares, the yield 
will be: 

p = 4§^ = 2.75 hectares. 
lb 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



523 



A. — FELLINGS BY VOLUME 

Art. 6. — Method of getting the yield. — The principal fellings are all for sale, 
and since the commune actually needs all its resources, it also desires that no reserve 
should be made, but that the whole yield should be auctioned each year. This request 
does not seem to be contrary to the spirit of the law and we believe it is correct. If 
the principal yield were entirely reserved each year the commune would ask for an 
emergency felling and the result would be the same. 

B. — AREA FELLINGS 

The improvement cuttings, because of the necessity for special firewood allowances, 
will form two distinct felling areas, each located at the nearest hamlet. The cutting 
will then be worked in two lots: 

The first for special firewood allowances ... in compartments H, I, K, L, and 
M (average area 2.18 hectares). The second for special firewood allowances . . . 
in the compartments C, D, E, F, and G (average area 0.57 hectare). However, since 
this second lot is so small it will only be worked every two years and its area will be 
1.14 hectares. 

A. — FELLINGS BY VOLUME 

Art. 6. — Location of fellings for the first period, 1911-1926. — The selection 
felhngs will be marked one after another and will cut over the compartments alpha- 
betically. No division will be left untU it has been entirely cut over. 

The following table gives for each compartment the estimated yield. Since the 
windfalls which may take place during the period must be counted (against the yield) 
it is recommended especially at the start to keep well below the (yield) figures given : 



Canton 


Compartment 


Area 


Growing stock 


Per cent to cut* 


Estimated j-ield 


La Vuardaz 

Le Peray 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
I 
L 
M 


6.11 
5.24 
2.17 
4.70 
2.95 
3.46 
2.11 
7.74 
7.14 
8.46 


741 
1,164 

254 
1,151 

464 

485 
52 
63 

121 
62 


22 
35 
30 
25 
22 
22 
40 
10 
10 
10 


163 
406 

76 
288 
100 
107 

20 
6 

12 
6 


Totals 




50.08 


4,557 


26 


1 184-74X16 









* In reahzing each year 1.62 per cent of the total stand there will be cut during the 
period 16 X 1.62 = 26 per cent. This is the average per cent cut. We have varied 
it for each compartment in accordance with the cultural requirements. 



B. — FELLINGS BY AREA 

The table which foUows shows the sequence and size of improvement fellings to mark 
each and every j-ear in the first class of fellings and every two years in the second. 
The areas are somew^hat unequal from one year to another; to assure an approximately 
sustained yield so far as practicable it was necessary to allot felhng areas universely 
'proportional to the abundance of broad-leaved trees in each of them, dividing up the coin- 
partments, however, as little as possible. 



524 



APPENDIX 



Year of the felling 



Serial No. 
of the cut 



Compartment 



Area 



Of parts to 
be cut over 
each year 



Of cutting 
areas 



Age of broad leaf trees 



In 1910 



At time of 
felling 



Canton of Le Peray — (First series of cuttings) 



1911 


1 






1.75 


15-30 


16-31 


1912 


2 


I 


7.74 


2.25 


15-30 


17-32 


1913 


3 


1.90 


15-30 


18-33 


1914 


4 






1.84 


15-30 


1^34 


1915 


5 






2.27 


40 


45 


1916 


6 


H 


6.78 


2.45 


15-30 


21-36 


1917 


7 






2.06 


15-30 


22-37 


1918 
1919 


8 
9 


K 


4.68 


1.61 
3.07 


10 
10 


18 
19 


1920 


10 






2.50 


10-15 


20-25 


1921 


11 


L 


7.14 


1.64 


10-15 


21-26 


1922 


12 


1.96 


15-20 


27-32 


1923 


13 






1.04 


15-20 


28-33 


1924 


14 






1.68 


10-20 


24-34 


1925 


15 


M 


8.46 


2.28 


10 


24 


1926 


16 J 




4.50 


10 


24 




Totals 


34.80 


34.80 





Canton of La Vuardaz — (Second series of cuttings) 



1911 
1913 
1915 
1917 
1919 
1921 
1923 
1925 



Totals. 



2.17 
3.00 

2.00 

1.00 
1.00 



9.17 



1.08 
1.09 
1.50 
1.50 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 



20 

18 
18 
18 
17 
15 
15 
15 



21 
21 
23 
25 
26 
26 
28 
30 



A. — VOLUME FELLINGS 

Art. 7. — Application of the yield. — Cultural rules. — The fellings shall be 
on the whole entirely selection (in character) favoring (for removal) dry topped trees, 
those decayed or overmature of all diameter classes whose removal will fill an important 
part of the yield. Next cut trees which have reached or passed the exploitable size 
(23.6 inches or 60 c. m. in diameter) and whose retention does not seem to be necessary 
in order to maintain the canopy. Do not forget that on the whole the growing stock 
is deficient and that all young trees which are sound and vigorous should in theory 
be retained; yet at the bottom of compartments A and B where there is a half -grown 
high forest, quite regular thinnings must be carried on in order to favor the devel- 
opment of the best stems. 

B. — AREA FELLINGS 

The aim of the improvement cuttings should be the creation of a mixed forest of 
conifers and broadleaves. In theory they should be exploited by cutting back (rece- 
page) ; this cutting back shall be complete when it concerns the softwoods, but on the 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 525 

contrary with the hardwoods there should be reserved (1) all the trees with freed crowns 
and in good condition; (2) a certain number of stems chosen from those with the longest 
boles on the areas where the conifers are lacking. However, at the time of the regular 
fellings one can clean out the saphngs where they are too dense by removing the dead 
trees or those clearly suppressed, although these last will be conserved, in theory. 

Art. 8. — Deduction (from the yield). — The volmne of conifers, from 20 cm. 
(8 inches) up, cut in any felling whatever in the compartments calipered shall be counted 
against the yield. 

PART IV 

Betterments 

General Map. — Compartment Map. — The topographic map was drawn on a 
scale of ggVa which corresponds to the scale used in the former map of Savoie, then 
reduced to g oVff in order to obtain the complete map given in the Appendix. Twenty- 
meter (66-foot) contours have been used. It is hoped that this map can be reproduced 
by the helographique process so that it can be sent to each agent as an example. 

Management Divisions. — All compartments are bounded by natural lines, trails, 
or canyons; there are no ditches to open up. But in order to avoid all confusion it is 
advisable that the compartment letters be marked on the boundary trees. A method 
which has given excellent results consists in lightly scraping the bark so as to make a 
smooth square which will take two coats of white zinc on which the letter can be painted 
in red or blue. 

Boundary Posts. — As has been seen, the boundary has been marked by posts and 
"crossed" rocks while the working plan data were collected, but it would be well to 
make this still plainer by opening up ditches or paths between the pillars or rocks. If 
the commune cannot afford this work along the entire boundary it would be a good 
plan to commence ditches on each side of corners pointing to the next ones. 

Reforestation. — The removal of overmature material, especially in compartments 
B and C, will necessitate openings which must be restocked to enrich the soil. The 
best method consists in working seed spots about 2 meters apart upon which excess 
wdld stock can be planted; the cultivation thus given the ground has the effect of mixing 
the soil with the acid humus, freely worked in, thus aiding the rooting of the seedling. 

Communications. — It is chiefly outside the forest that means of communication 
are lacking, especially in the Canton of Vuardaz, but the study for road improvements 
below the stand at the hamlet of Bois and Chatillon is out of our hands. 

Improvement Tax on the Sales. — To permit the execution of the improvements 
here enumerated as well as those found later on to be useful a tax of 3 per cent should 
be levied on all wood sales and allotted for expenditure to the local forest service. 

Patrol. — The trespass (timber cutting) which has taken place and which still con- 
tinues in the Canton of Peray requires vigorous measures. The isolation of this separate 
stand from the rest of the forest by a rocky ridge and the distance from the ranger 
station makes patrol difficult; to assure patrol it appears that cooperation will be 
necessary between the Canton of Bonneville and Taninges. It will not require too 
much work of the two districts to prevent the abuse of this wretched canton. It goes 
without saying that legal proceedings must always. be_ pressed with the utmost ^vigor. 



526 APPENDIX 



PART V 

Comparative Review of the Revenue Before and After the (proposed) 

Working Plan 

The average annual yield of the forest during the last 10 years (1901-1910) is as 
follows : 

Wood products (70 m. c.) 820 francs; (minor) accessory products, 66 francs = total 
of 886 francs. From this must be deducted: (1) cost of guard, 110 francs; (2) adminis- 
trative costs, 41 francs; (3) taxes, 102 francs, or 253 francs, leaving a net revenue of 633 
francs (equal to 80 cents per acre per year). The receipts to be realized after the appli- 
cation of the working plan proposed can, on the other hand, be valued as follows : Princi- 
pal felling (74 m. c.) 962 francs; improvement cuttings (20 m. c. at 2 francs), 40 francs; 
(minor) accessory products, 66 francs, or a total of 1,068 francs; from which must be 
deducted: (1) cost of guard, 122 francs; (2) administrative costs, 50 francs; (3) taxes, 
102 francs, or 274 francs costs, leaving a net revenue of 794 francs. This net revenue 
would thus be 161 francs more than the former, or a 25 per cent increase (about $1 per 
acre per year). 

(Signed) A. Schaeffer, 
Inspector of Waters and Forests, Chief of Management. 

Chambery, November 25, 1910. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



527 



VOLUME TABLE * 



Diameters 
B. H., 


Spruce and 
fir, 


Pine, 
cubic 


Remarks 


inches 


cubic meters 


meters 




8 


0.2 


0.1 


H 


10 


0.4 


0.2 


a 


12 


0.6 


0,3 


o 
C 
B 


14 


0.9 


0.5 


16 

18 


1.2 
1.6 


0.7 
1.0 


o 2. 


20 


2.1 


1.3 


s-g 


22 


2.6 


1.6 


is- 


24 


3.2 


2.0 


pg 


26 

28 


3.8 
4.5 


2.4 
2.8 


It 

3 g 
a — 


30 


5.2 


3.2 


32 


6.0 


3.7 


? 


34 


6.8 


4.2 


o 


36 


7.7 


4.8 


•a 
to 


38 


8.6 


5.4 




40 


9.6 


6.0 


g^ 



Graphical representation of the growing stock. 
Upper line indicates normal growing stock. 
Lower line indicates actual growing stock. 

TABLE SHOWING THE NORMAL 
HECTARE (SELECTION FOREST) 



D. B. H., 

inches 


Number 
of trees 


Volume 

per tree, 

c. m. 


Volume for 
the diameter 
class, c. m. 


8 


114 


0.2 


22.8 


10 


73 


0.4 


29.2 


12 


55 


0.6 


33.0 


14 


44 


0.9 


39.6 


16 


35 


1.2 


42.0 


18 


27 


1.6 


43.2 


20 


21 


2.1 


44.1 


22 


17 


2.6 


44.2 


24 


14 


3.2 


44,8 




400 




342.9 




30 



28 



26 



24 22 20 

Diameter Breast Hi 



18 16 

?h in Inches 



12 



10 



* In the original working plan the volumes for (a) the spruce, fir and (6) the pine were graphically shown by 
2-inch diameter classes and cubic meters of volume. 



528 



APPENDIX 



RESULTS OF BORINGS WITH PRESSLER'S INCREMENT BORER 
Number of years to pass from one diameter class to another 



D. B. H., inche 


i 8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 




19 
17 
10 
11 
12 


11 

8 


40 
16 


14 
21 

8 
21 
28 
21 
10 

6 


17 
16 
7 
22 
25 
25 
10 
14 
17 


11 

17 
17 


16 
5 


24 
8 
9 








6 






















Time in 














years to 




















grow 




















2 inches 


































































Totals 


69 


19 


56 


129 


153 


45 


21 


41 








6 


Averages . . 


13.8 


9.5 


28.0 


16.1 


17.0 


15.0 


10.5 


13.6 








6 











The 35 trees take in the aggregate 539 years to pass from one diameter class to an- 

539 
other or an average of -^ = 15.4; that is to say in 16 years all the stems should pass 

through one diameter class (2 inches); the length of the cutting period is therefore 
justified. The curve given below brings out this point even clearer: 



1 35 

<^ 25 
o ^ 20 

a ■§ 






































































































/ 


\ 












































/ 


\ 


\ 








































-^ 


f 




\ 


































i; c3 15 

s S 

o 10 
° 5 








/ 


















^ 




^ 
























































— 


— 





















































16 18 20 22 24 

Diameter Breast High in Inches 



28 



30 



32 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 529 

AVERAGE GROWTH PER CENT BY DIAMETER CLASSES 



D. B. H., inches 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 






2.86 
2.86 
5.83 
3.67 
4.00 


2. 
5. 


67 
33 


0.53 
1,67 


2.28 
1.43 
3.81 
1.04 
1.43 
1.43 
2.86 
4.75 


1.67 
2.00 
4.16 
1.11 
0.83 
0.83 
2,50 
1.43 
2.00 
16.53 




1.78 
1.27 
.11 




1.14 
1.00 




).61 

1.82 
1.82 












2.67 


Totals 


19.22 


8. 


00 


2.20 


19.03 


4.16 


5.14 


4.25 












2.67 


Averages 


3.84 


4. 


00 


1.1 


2.38 


1.83 


1.39 


2.57 


1.42 












2.67 



Evened off by curve. 



4 
3 

1 



10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 



530 



APPENDIX 



The table below gives the per cents evened off by a curve; by applying them to the 
volumes of the different diameter classes resulting from the valuation the probable 
growth of the forest as it stands is obtained: 



D. B. H., inches a 


Total volume in cubic 
meters 


Growth 


per cent read from 
curve 


Growth 


in cubic meters 


8 


356 


X 


4.75 


^ 


16.9 


10 


491 


X 


3.25 


= 


16.0 


12 


529 


X 


2.75 


= 


14.5 


14 


643 


X 


2.0 


= 


12.9 


16 


898 


X 


1.75 


= 


15.7 


18 


685 


X 


1.62 


= 


11.1 


20 


399 


X 


1.50 


= 


6.0 


22 


255 


X 


1.32 


= 


3.3 


24 


160 


X 


1.20 


= 


1.9 


26 


72 


X 


1.15 


= 


0.8 


28 


36 


X 


1.10 


= 


0.4 


30 


21 


X 


1.05 


= 


0.2 


32 


18 
4,558 


X 


1.00 




0.2 
99.9 



"This column was not given in the original plan. 



99.9 



The average yearly growth per cent would equal ""'" =2.19 per cent. 

4,ooo 



It is there- 



fore evident that in reducing the per cent to be cut to 1.62 a considerable saving will 
be made so essential to complete the (deficient) growing stock. 



ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



531 



3 ^ 
— "^ 

S o 
c 

a 


> 


348.4 
486.8 
523.2 
639.9 


895.2 
684.8 
399.0 
249.6 


i 




o 


00 

o 


o 

00 


02 






to 


CM 

-*' 


"5 


o 

CO 


00 


CO 
CM 


CM 




<J> 




M+fa 


C^t^C<l-HCO00Ot0O0300->fC0 
t^ C^ 00 t-» t^ *«»< T^ 


to 
o 




CO « OS CO •* 
t^ C<l ^H 


to 


s 


•^ 


fe 


C^(MOOCq»C»^t^iO^HCO^H^H 


CO 
























as 


IMOtOOilM— It^OO-*— > 
t^ (M_ 00 to t~ •>* -H 


Ui 
























CO 


> 


•^ to ■»a^ »o c^ 
rt' CO ira •* — 1 ; 












to 


• 1 Oi o ^ ira ■ 

j r-< rt cm' C> : 


00 

in 


c- 

s 




o 


05 


t^ -^ C5 lO ^ 

in c<5 ; ; 












g 1 • 1 O U5 00 .-H 


u ! 1 


00 


■^ 
t^ 


> 


o ■* to to O to O 

^ 00 (M Ol (N »^ 00 

CO rt — 1 ^ rt .-1 












to 




00 00 oo 

■* o ^ 


o 


00 


o 


'•^ 


1 lO CO ^ "* O ^H •<r 

02 1 in '^ "^^ " '^ '^ 












'-HI ■ 1 oo -^ to 

CD . ^ ^ ■" 


^ 1 "^ 


1 O 1 lO 
1 CO 1 


"5 


1 m 00 O CJ to (M — • 












»0 1 ■ 1 05 "* »0 lO ^H 1 ..^ 

CO 1 o M rt cm' «■ oi 


CM ^ 


1 00 t^ w:) 00 oo t^ ^ 
M 1 CO rt rf 












] <35 1 • 1 rt 1 CO 


1 CM 1 CM 


o 2 


1 o •* to 

> 1 ^ ^ d 


00 00 ■>)< 
-*' T}<' oo' 


CO 


»0 (M O 1 OS 1 00 1 

CO lO to rt 

-H 1 lO 1 1 


















«3+fe 1 "= S - 


"* " "^ 


^ 


CO ^^ '-I j -^ 1 »o 1 












1 


1 




f^ 1 '^ '^ : 


: : '^ 


'^ 


"^ : '^ 1 S 1 : 1 












1 


1 




1 ■* O -H 


•* CO ■ 




" : 1 ^ 1 : 1 












1 


■ 1 




2 


> 


OOtOtOl^OO^HOOtOQOOC^O 

t^r^00»O^C^-»*^tOO*MC5»OCS 
(>lCO-*tOOOt~^^ M ^ 




to 






















05'^^COO»0-^OOCCtOC^^HC<l[ »0 1 OOl 
Oa+fe MOJOOt^t~-»"C^-H liO|00 












1 


; 1 




1 ^■^tO05'»**tOC0C^C<»»-<»-H • 1 Oi 

fe 1 -' '^ : : 1 "^ 


: 1 












1 


; 1 




1 OOOiO-*tOCSOOtO^H»OT^»-HC^l to 
CZ3 1 cjcnt^to>Oco-H-< |o 
















1 










> 


C^(MC>1tDOOOOOC^l(M 

tOt^CO-^OOtOfM^HOa 
(M->»l-*0000t^-*CO-H 




xri . 




^ 






















w+fe 


— looc^^-ifcoocqto 




'^ 


! § 


53 














1 








fe 


OI^-^^HOOOaOOlOtM 




^^ 


to 
























M 


^H-^OOCOtOCS'Mt^'^ 






■o 
























O 

Q ^ 


> 


tOOO-*>*00-H(M<M-)<iOC-l • 

r^to^Hoo-^tor^ccr-ocoio 
»oo5^"5e^OiOQOtoco^ 

»-H »— 1 C^ »— < I— 1 

: 


00 

o 


1 






















M 


OOOiOlOb^COi— lC^i-H(30C0'-' 

oo-rj^oor-oocsi»ococ<i 

C^ OJ -H ^ ^ ^ . 


U5 
CO 


CM 






















O °. 


> 


OO' CD CO »0 CO o" M t^ O 

1-. -^*< lO CO CD (M 








o 


^ 






















m 


C^CDOiOSCOCO^COC^ 
Oi T-< 00 CO lO ^H 








o 


2 
























>• 


0-^CD'*'*0<MOOOCO 
(m' 00 CT) C5 Cq Cci O Oi (m' t--" 

oO'^<M'*r^05cow5co 






to 


CM 

cq 






















CQ 


OCOCOCDt-^OC^COOC^ 
^CTi^OCSC^COC<l^ 
-^ ^ CSI ^ Cq ^ 






in 


i 






















<° 


> 


'^t^OOO-^'^OOcOCO'*"'** 

100005---*(M"*OC^'^ 
CDOJOCOCOOliOC^'M^ 






^ 


CM 






















32 


t^iocococ^oocDoor>.co 
Cq -* 00 -^t* ^ o c^ 






•ra 


00 






















c3Sa 


lea 


C^'^CDClC^CO'— ICDC^OO»'5<MO 
OOOO'-«i-t<MC^C0C0-*i0C0 


£ 

C3 

a 


— c CM CO "5 t^ ; 

o CD o o o : 




1 


6 

) 


as 


OOOC^"*COOOOC 


^ ■<*< to 00 O M "^ 


00 O CM -^ to "^ 


-0 o 

a o. 









532 



APPENDIX 



COMPARTMENT DESCRIPTIONS (SAMPLE) 





a 
S 




Situation — 








Canton 


a 
6 


Area 


slope, altitude, 
aspect 


Soil 


Species 


Age 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 






Hectares 










La Vuardaz . . 


A 


6.11 


Slope very 


Upper cretaceous red stratum 


Spruce, 97 per 


Age of 








steep, cliffs, 


calcaire, marl. 


cent 


overstory 








north expo- 


Soil rocky and generally shal- 


Beech and 


100 years 








sure 


low. The rock formation 


others, 3 per 










Altitude 


outcrops very frequently 


cent 










850-1084 m. 


Cover of moss and vegetable 

litter 






La Vuardaz . . 


B 


5.24 


Slope very 


Upper cretaceous red stratum 


Spruce, 99 per 


Age of 








steep, facing 


Soil quite deep and solid but 


cent; beech, 


overstory 








north and 


impermeable, therefore some 


1 per cent 


100 years 








northwest 


root rot 












Altitude 


Cover of grass, epilobes 












850-1084 m. 








La Vuardaz . . 


C 


2.17 


Slope steep 


Same geologic base as above 


Spruce, 90 per 


Age of 








to west and 


but with marl. 


cent; beech 


overstory 








northwest 


Soil dry, rocky, and stony to 


and oak, 10 


100 years 








dominated 


the south; rest like B 


per cent 


also 15-20 








by a cliff 






year old 








Altitude 






broad- 








892-1045 m. 






leaved 
trees 


La Vuardaz . . 


D 


4.70 


Ridge with 


Same as C in re. geology. 


Spruce, 90 per 


1 to 150 








rapid slope 


Soil dry, shallow, and rocky 


cent; beech 


years for 








facing north- 


toward the cliff to the west; 


and broad- 


the coni- 








west and 


on remainder fresh and rich, 


leaves, 10 


fers 








west where it 


there is an abundant cover 


per cent 


15 to 20 








is bounded 


of shrubs, briars, ferns. 




years for 








by a cliff 


moss, etc. 




the broad- 








Altitude 






leaved 








995-1171 m. 






trees 


Total 




18.22 











ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 



533 



COMPARTMENT DESCRIPTIONS {SAMFLE) — Continued 



Description of stand 



In the lower part young high forest regular and 
in good condition. On the rest of area selec- 
tion forest open and poor, composed of short 
limby trees. The hardwoods . . . are 
hardly represented, only a few beech usually 
isolated 

Rocky blanks, 0.11 hectares 

Stocked area, 6.0 hectares 

In the lower part young high forest regular and 
in good condition. On re.st of area high forest 
open with some blanks, more or less damaged 
by insects (bostrytches) despite their being 
localized understory of beech. The trees are 
long-bo'.ed but have a strong tendency to be 
worm-eaten 

Growth declining in vigor 

To the S. VV. under the cliff coppice invaded by 
the conifers which are in places clumps of 
saplings, poles and even young high forest. 
Elsewhere open and declining in vigor, rav- 
aged by bortrvches 

Growth not vigorous except near the bottom 

Rocky blanks, 0. 10 hectares 

Stocked area, 2 . 07 hectares 

Selection forest in vigorous condition, good 
height, topping in places an understory of 
bee^h. Toward the cliff coppice quite com- 
plete, overtopped by conifers singly and in 
groups 

Growth active on the east, slowing up on the 
west, found a lot of overmature trees 



Stand per 
hectare 



186 



280 



124 



123 



245 



1164 



254 



1151 



Graphic description of stock 

Each horizontal square represents 
a difference of 2 inches in diameter: 
each vertical square 10 trees 









































































































































































































































































1 




r~ 




































































































































' 
























































































S 


S 










































S 














































s 




■ ,^ 
















































•. 








































L 






























^ 




































































































































































































































































































































































\s 
























































































\ 


\ 












































s 


^ 


\ 












































> 


.. 












































^ 




-• 


- 








































s 






























































































































































































































































\ 




































































































































\ 












































M 












































/\ 


N 












































\ 


\ 










































\ 




>. 








































' 


\ 


'^ 


-^ 






































\ 
















































r^ 


































































































































































































































































































































































































\ 
























































































\ 'v 












































N 








































' 








■•< 


^ 




































































































































I'T^'^i^ 


































_ 




1 1 r 


_ 




__ 


_ 






- 


_j 






1 1 



Valuation of 1910 
Normal stand 



534 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX L 

MODEL INSURANCE CALCULATIONS OF DAMAGE BY FIRE i 

Forest under working plan with an area of 80 hectares, treated in coppice-imder- 
standards with a rotation of 20 years divided into 20 feUing areas with an average area 
on the ground of 4 hectares. 

1. — Object Insured 

(1) The coppice, composed of oak 0.3; beech 0.2; hornbeam 0.4; miscellaneous 0.1; 
whose ages vary from 1 to 20 years. 

(2) The reserves, but only including the oak, the beech, and the miscellaneous trees 
with circumferences between 0.51 meters and 1.10 meters at 1.30 meters above the soil. 

(3) (L'Ensouchement) root systems. 

(4) Litter. 

It is agreed that the rate of interest to be used in calculations shall be 31 per cent. 

II. — Calculations of the Capital to be Insured 

(1) Coppice. The net average value of the stand 20 years old is 300 francs per hectare. 
The value per hectare capable of giving a revenue of 300 francs every 20 years is given 
at the rate of 3i per cent: 

F = SOOX 777^ 20 - 1 = (By using the 3d Cotta table) 

(1035; 
F = 300 X 1.01 = 303 francs. 

From this value per hectare should be deducted the value V per hectare calculated 
by the formula: 

V = 303 francs (1.033" — 1), where " = the age of the growing stock or, employing 
the first Cotta table, 

V ', or a value of a hectare aged one year 303 X 0.03 = 9 francs 

yi", or a value of a hectare aged 10 years 303 X 0.41 = 124 francs 

V'^°, or a value of a hectare aged 20 years 303 X 0.99 = 300 francs 

Total 2,802 francs 

In the example just given, each of the 20 feUing areas with ages 1 to 20 years have a 
surface of 4 hectares. It therefore results that the total value of the coppice, that is to 
say, the amount to be insured, will be 2,802 X 4 = 11,208 francs, or, in round num- 
bers, 11,200 francs. 

(2) Reserve. The oak and beech with circumferences between 0.51 and 1.10 meters 
are divided into three classes according to the table which follows (resulting from former 
stocktaking and valuation) indicates the composition and the average value per hectare; 



Circumference class 
(meters) 


Species and value 


Total value, 
francs 


0.51-0.70 


15 oaks worth 2 francs each 

10 beech and miscellaneous worth 1 franc each. . 
10 oaks worth 3 francs each 

6 beech and miscellaneous worth 2 francs each. 

8 oaks worth 5 francs each 

4 beech and miscellaneous worth 3 francs each. 


30 


0.71-0.90 


10 
30 


0.91-1.10 


12 
40 
12 


Total 


134 









' See p. 288 for discussion. 



MODEL INSURANCE CALCULATIONS 535 

The sum of 134 francs being the capital to insure to guarantee the reserves on one hec- 
tare, that corresponding to the whole forest will be 134 X SO = 10,720 francs, or, in 
round figiu-es, 19,700 francs. 

(3) Roots. The cost of planting 1,000 plants may be estimated according to regional 
costs at : 

Francs 

Purchase of 1,000 plants 10 

Transport, planting, and accessory expense 14 

Total 24 

5,000 plants per hectare will be sufficient to reconstitute the forest supposedly 
entirely destroyed. It results, therefore, that the expense per hectare will be 24 francs X 
5 = 120 francs and that for the SO hectares of the forest, the capital to be insured in 
view of the guarantee will be 120 francs X 80 = 9,600 francs. 

(4) Litter. The necessary expense for covering the soil with 1 kilogram of azote 
can be valued locally as follows : 

Francs 

Purchase of manure yielding 1 kilogram of azote 1 .50 

Transport, spreading, and necessary expense 0.50 

Total 2.00 

The average weight of the litter per hectare is 40 quintaux capable of furnishing 1 
kilogram of azote per quintal or 40 kilograms of azote per hectare. It therefore follows 
that the expense per hectare will be 2 francs X 40 = SO francs and that for the 80 hec- 
tares of the forest the capital to be insured wiU be 80 francs X 80 = 6,400 francs. 
The total capital to be insured will then be : 

Francs 

Coppice 11,200 

Reserves 10,700 

Roots 9,600 

Litter 6,400 

Total 37,900 

III. — Calculations of the Annual Insurance Rate 

(1) Charcoal is manufactured. 

(2) The forest has no fire lines, divisions, or brooks capable of stopping fire. 

These two factors increase the insurance ri.sk each to the extent of 0.05 per cent or a 
total of 0.10 per cent, which gives a final figure of 0.50 + 0.10 = 0.60 per cent. Apph'- 
ing this 0.60 per cent rate to the capital to be insured, it yields an annual rate to be paid 
of 37.9 X 0.60 = 22.74 francs. 

A fire burns 3 hectares of the forest of which 2 hectares is coppice aged 8 years and 
1 is hectare coppice aged 10 years — 16 oaks and 60 beech and miscellaneous of circum- 
ferences between 0.51 and 1.10 are destroyed. Half the stumps have been killed by 
the fire. Two-thirds the fitter is destroyed. 

IV. — Calculation of the Damage Caused 

Francs 
(1) Coppice. 2 hectares aged 8 years, worth 2 X 97 francs = 194 
1 hectare aged 10 j-ears, worth 1 X 125 francs = 125 

Total 319 



536 



APPENDIX 



Salvage and deduct. The cost of cutting back is compensated by the value of the 
products saved; therefore there is no salvage: Net = 319 francs. 

(2) Reserves. The trees destroyed according to circumferences at 1.30 above the 
soil are: 



Circumferences 




Francs 


0.51-0.70 


10 oaks worth 2 francs each 


20 


71-0.90 


25 beech and miscellaneous worth 1 franc each . . 

6 oaks worth 3 francs each 

20 beech and miscellaneous worth 2 francs each . 
15 beech and miscellaneous worth 3 francs each . 

Total 

Actual value of the trees killed by fire 


25 
18 


0.91-1.10 

Salvage to deduct. 


40 
45 

148 

60 




Net 


88 









(3) Roots. The amount necessary to replace half the roots per hectare is 120 ^ 2. 

This replacement being necessary on 3 hectares, there will be due for the damage to the 

120 
root systems -^ X 3 = 180 francs. 

(4) Litter. The amount necessary to replace two-thirds the litter per hectare is 

2 X80 . 
— -z — francs. 
o 

This replacement being necessary on 3 hectares there will be due for damage caused 

2 y so 
to the litter ^ X 3 = 160 francs, 
o 

The total damage caused will then be: 

Francs 

Coppice 318 

Reserves 88 

Roots 180 

Litter 160 

Total 746 



INDEX 



Administration, costs, 57 
Administrative education, 268 
Adour, valley of the, 71 
Agriculture, cultivable land, 27 

staples of, 27 
Aleppo and Scotch pine, selection fellings 
for, 87 

pine, clear cutting, 72 
Algerian code of 1908, 261 
Algeria, special laws for, 261 
Allied cooperation, x 
Alpine gorges, work done in, 8 
Alps, land forests of the, 36 

region, 422 

size, 36 

zone, 32 
Alsace-Lorraine, forests of, 495 

valley in. Frontispiece. 
Amance, State forest of, 101 
Amboise, forest of, 95, 323, 328 
American Army, what it required, 337 

Forest Engineers in France, 336 

operations, French view of, 355 

requirements, French difficulties in 
supplying, 356 

woodsmen called to the colors, 338 
Appraisal, a sample, 295 

and estimate, 294 
Appendixes, 360-536 
Aqueducts and tunnels, 162 
Arbor day celebrations, 19 
Arc-et-Chateauvillain forest, 323 
Area allotment by periods, 239 

and age, 234 

and topography, 25 

burned over, 204 

felling by, 255 

in hectares, xxi 

pure, 232 

size of, to restore, 156 
Areas, eroded, per cent, 145 
Argon, forest of. 111 
Avalanches, erosion, and floods, 23 

frequent in the mountains, 158 



Avalanches, protection against, 158 

works to prevent, 255 
Aude, sowing in the, 138 

Badre, inspecteur, 76 

Bagneris method of tapping, 107 

Ball planting, 128 

Ban d'Etival, fir stumpage prices, 313 

Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre, forest of, 91 

Barcelonette (Basses- Alpes), success of 

plants, 126 
Bark, cork, 233 

tannin, 92 
Barres Secondary School for Rangers, 124 
Basses-Alpes, department of, 36 
Beaufort, communal forest of, 109 
Beech, 390 

and oak forests, well-managed, 14 

-oak stands in northeast of France, 98 

regeneration, irregularity of, 82 

second important species, 41 

selection coppice, 94 

shelterwood for, 76 

tolerant, 76 
Benardeau, conservator of forests, 18 
Betterments, 290 

Biscarrosse, forest of, 7, 172, 189, 191 
Bonnevaux, forest of, 87 
Boppe, 71, 94, 106 

Bremontier, a great engineer, 169, 173, 175 
Bridge and Road Service, 176 
Briot, conservator. Forest Service, 153 
Broadleaves, area occupied by, 40 
BroilUard, 23, 97 

Calipering, rules for, 212 

stands, 211 
Carcans, forest of, 188, 191 
Caterpillar tractors, 346 
Cembric pine and larch, 33, 165 
Central Plateau region, 426 

zone, 33 
Cette-Eygun, forest of, 83 
Cevennes region, 427 



537 



538 



INDEX 



Chamonix forest, 229, 259 

working plan, 248-250 
Chapelle d'Huin, forest of, 87 
Charcoal, burning, 204 
Chevandier, Doctor, 142 
Cleaning and freeing young stands, 106 

meaning of, 105 
Cleanings and thinnings, 71 

when to make, 108 
Chmate, 26 

Climatic and physical features, 25 
Code, forest, xv 

Colbert, the great conservationist, 221 
Combre dune, sowing on the, 138 
Commerce, 29 
Communal forests, xiv 
Compartment subdivision, 226 
Conifers, area occupied by, 40 
Coniferous stands, planting of, 130 
Conservation, French attitude toward, 9 

name of, xxi 

projects, private forests in, 9 
Conservations, France proper divided into 

thirty-two, 273 
Consumption of lumber, per capita, 16 
Contractors, rights of, 299 
Conversion, cost of, 103 

the best known, 101, 103 
Conversions, 54-57, 70, 100 
Cooperation, allied, x 
Coppice, 54, 57, 70 

loss in large area in, 92 

managed on short rotation, 92 

of sessile oak, 92 

selection treatment in, 94, 233 

simple, 93 

stands, species found in French, 93 

systems, 92, 100 

under conversion, acres of, 100 

when not to cut, 93 

with field crops, 94 

with short rotation, 218 

with standards, 487 
Coppice-under-standards, 54, 57, 70, 93 

classified, 97 

four rules for improvement of, 96 

(futaie claire), substitute, 98 

inferior to high forest, 94 

rotation for, 97 

system, 100 
Cordwood, how estimated, 208 



Cordwood, prices, 306 

sold by ton, 208 
Corsica, 262 

special laws for, 261 
Cork bark, 233 
Cost of conversion, 103 
Costs, restocking blanks, 79 
Cover and protection, 129 
Crowns, thrifty, well-developed, 86 
Cuif, in charge of research at Nancy, 101 
Cut, regulation of, 231 

systematizing the, 225 
Cutting area, marking the, 254 

and logging rules, 297 

clear, 70, 82 

cycles, length of, 227 

cycles and rotations, 226 

final, 188 

period, 87, 227 

principles and methods of, 224 

regulation of, 215 

requirements imposed by the French, 
353 

saw timber, 201 

systematic, beginning of, 218 

systems of, 70, 232 
Cuttings, improvement, 104, 105, 189 

intermediate, 105 

transformation, 103, 104 

Dabat, M., 312 
Damage by birds, 278 

by frost, 281 

by game, 279 

by sunscald and drought, 282 

from grazing, 280 

from logging, 277 

fungous, 280 

insect, 278 

prevention of, 275 

snow, 282 

windfall, 280 
Dams, costly system of, 154 

construction of, 157 

log and dry stone, 155 

masonry and rubble, 9 

principal objects of, 157 

technique of, 157 

walls, drains, purpose of, 164 
Daubree, minister of agriculture, 23, 140 
Deforestation, cause of, 18 



INDEX 



539 



Deforestation, dangers of, 17 

legislation against, 316 

on mountain slopes, 6 

obligation of the State, 18 
Deforested countries, 17 
De Gail, conservateur, 45, 279 
De Lapasse, conservateur, xx, 22 
Demontzey, 115, 141, 162 
Department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 88 
Departments, xxi, 47, 50 

most heavily and least forested, 52 
Devarennes, inspector, 60 
Diameter limit by single trees, 233 
Dijon hardwood belt, xviii 
Dingy St. Clair, forest of, 244 
Dinner, authority on forestation, 122, 130 
District manager, duties of, 341 
Drains, paved, at Bastan, 161 
Dr6me, basin of, 36 

valley of, 167 
Dune commission, 175 

littoral, 180, 181 

protection, at Lacaneau-Ocean, 171 

road, 183 

the protective, 180 
Dunes, 169 

advance of, 172 

and Landes, 262 

area of French, 177 

artificial, 181 

artificial barrier, cost, 184 

conditions of coast, 177, 179 

cost and price data, 183 

development of, 173 

fixation and maintenance of, 180 

high protective, 181 

kinds of, causes, 171 

maintenance of, 437 

maritime, in France, 176 

method of combatting, 6 

reclamation of, 173 
Dunning, valuation surveys by, 212 
Durance, the basin of the, 36 

Earth movements, causes of, 160 
Economic needs and national traits, 1 
Education, forestry, 275 
Embrunais, larch forests of the, 36 
Engineers, the American Forest, in France, 

336 
Ermenonville, forest of, 78 



Erosion and precipitation, 147 

avalanches, and floods, 23 

corrective measures, 153 

form of, 148 

in the mountains, 140 

not caused by grazing, 152 

preventing further, 166 

rocks and soils, 148 
Estimates, ocular, 211 
Eu-et-Aumale, forest of, 316 
Expense and receipts, state forests, 203 
Exotics rarely succeed, 44 
Experiments recommended, 79 

Felling areas, groups divided into, 88 

cycles, 191 

final, 74, 231 

"open" or "light," 74 
Felhngs, fir selection, 83 

group, 70 

improvement, 111 

intermediate, 113, 189, 233 

or thinnings, intermediate, 231 

progressive (shelterwood system), 73 

secondary, 74 

selection, 70 
Fence, to prevent damage from game, 75 
Field crops, coppice with, 94 
Final felling, 74 
Fire, chief causes of, 284 

damage intensive, 282 

insurance calculations of damage by, 
534 

insurance in France, 288 

lines, 287 

preventive, chief, measures in France, 
276 

problem in forest of I'Esterel, 283 

protection necessary, 276 
Fir and spruce in mixture, shelterwood for, 
82 

average figure per acre for, 84 

forest, a, 332 

forests, money yield from, 320 

or spruce, group selection for, 89 

selection fellings, 83 

shelterwood for, 80 

silver, 41, 397 

-spruce forests, 60 

-spruce stands, rule for, 239 

stands in the Jura, studies of, 60 



540 



INDEX 



Flahaut, M., 141 

Fishing and shooting, 262 

Flood control in the Alps, 7 

Floods, avalanches, and erosion, 23 

Fontainebleau, forest of, 79 

Forest acquisitions in the war zone, 352 

acres of. State, communal, private, 34 

agencies of France, cooperation with, 
351 

and land conservation, 6 

and sawmill divorced, 14 

and springs, 361 

area, French possession of, 45 

area in private ownership, 315 

area, per cent of, 46 

area, typical, 34 

areas, 49 

art and literature, 24 

belts, imjiortant, 338 

code, XV, 11 

code of 1827, 261 

crop, 218, 226 

description, example of the latest, 245, 
246 

destruction, controlling, xxiv 

devastation, State control of, 4 

divisions, 29 

education, where obtained, 274 

engineers, accomplishment of, 348, 350 

engineers, organization of, 338 

enterprises, use of land for, 9 

fires, laws dealing with, 4 

growth, receding in the mountains, 141 

high, 54-57, 93, 98 

houses, 290 

influences, 19 

investment, 319, 320, 322 

labor, wages paid, 13 

land in the United States, 45 

lands, confiscation of, 8 
devastation of, 16 

literature and art, 24 
French, 448 

management, 11, 224 

name of, xxi 

the normal, 231 

officers, staff of, 12 

ownership, 46 

policy in the United States, 220, 221 

preparedness in France, 337 

private, owners, 45 



Forest problems, 15 
production, xxiv, 46 
property as long-term investment, 322 
regions, 25, 29 
regulating a, 225 
regulation, beginning of, 218 
high, 476 

reserves, when established, 223 
resources, intensive use of, 15 
revenue, average, 184 
roads, local, 63 
selection, formula for management of a, 

84 
school, Nanc}% 101 
soil, 67 

species, important, 40 
species, silvics of important, 387 
statistical data, 45 
state administration, xvii 
system of cutting, 46 
systems, high, 71 
taxation, French, 267 
the, from an economic viewpoint, 381 

from a physical viewpoint, 381 

from a social viewpoint, 381 
troops loaned to French and British 

Armies, 357 
type of, 99 
versus farm crops, 13 
Forest of Amance, 20 

Amboise, 95 

Amboise, how acquired, 327 

Amboise, receipts and expenses, 329 

Amboise, situation, 328 

Argon, 111 

Ban d"fitival, 508 

Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre, 91 

Beaufort, 109 

Belle Vaux, 37 

Biscarrosse, 172, 189, 191 

Bonncvaux, 87 

Burdignin, 516 

Carcans, 188, 191 

Cette-Eygun, 83 

Chamonix, 260 

Chapelle d'Huin, 87 

Ding.y St. Claire, 244 

Ermenonville, 78 

Fillinges, 515 

Fontainebleau, 79 

G^rardmer, 80, 243 



INDEX 



541 



Forest of Grande Chartreuse, 87 

Grande Cote, 500 

Huit, 102 

La Dole, 32 

La Gardiole, 126, 129 

La Joux, 32, 60, 512 

Lancanau, 188 

Lardies, 512 

L'Esterel, 233 

La Teste, 188, 193 

Levier, 62 

Malmifait, 77, 112 

Manigod, 39 

Montargis, conversion in the, 102 

Mont-Gene vre, 36 

Mont Glore, 511 

Moudon, 379 

Ouhans, 61 

Noiremont, 81 

Parc-et-St. Quentin, 77, 517 

Paridas, 75 

Rambouillet, 79 

Risol, 81 

Risoux, 32 

St. Antoine, 91 

St. Martin d'.Ajc, 87 

St. Panerace, 89 

St. Paul, 165 

St. Point, 62 

Thiez, 517 

Thones-ViUe, 109 

Tignes, 90 

Villarodin-Bourget, 85 

Vuillecin, 103 

X, 323, 332 
Forestation, 182 

and drainage practicable, 170 
artificial, grazing disastrous to, 173 
by communes, 147 
by individuals, 147 
di^asions, 145 
examples of, 164 
methods, 130 
obligatory, 115 
optional, 115 
practice, French, 138 
Forester's golden rule, 66 
Forestry a national art, 2 

a poor investment for an individual, 335 
as a commercial business, 14 
as an investment, 317 



Forestry education, 275 

French, restrictions in cutting, 354 

the war a vindication of, 358 
in the Landes, 169 
operations, geographical distribution, 

340 
private, its economic basis, 12 

on its own merits, 15 
real, in France, 268 
section of the Expeditionary Force, 340, 

358 
troops, a division of, 340 
troops, spirit of, 349 
Forests, action of, on springs, 363 
area and topography, 25 
commimal and institution, 53 
control of private, 5 
dune, in public hands, 178 
educational value of, 11 
extent of the public, 10 
famous recreation, 23 
federal, two important, 36 
fir, of France, 31 
for indirect benefits, 323 
for health, recreation, and beauty, 23 
French, inroads upon, 356 

regulations, 231, 232 
frontier, 262 
functions of, 11 
high, selection, 233 
important private, 415 
in conservation projects, 9 
indirect benefits of, xxiv 
influence of, 365, 371, 372 , 
in small holdings, 46 
in the Alps, xxiii 

Central Plateau, xxiii 

Girondine, xxiii 

Jura, xxiii 

Provengale, xxiii 

PjTenees, xxiii, 38 

Vosges, xxiii 
legal statiLs of, 2 
most worth a visit, xx 
mountain, in detail, 34 

yield, 35 
national, aUenations of, 10 
of the United States, 220 
oak, 69 

of Alsace-Lorraine, 495 
of France, communal, 11 



542 



INDEX 



Forests, ownership of, 177 
painters of, 24 
plains, jdeld, 35 
private, 53 

bought by the A. E. F., 212 

statistics on, 409 
protection of, 140 
pubhc, statistics on, 409 
purpose of, 11 
scenic, treatment of, 91 
selection, French government, 230 

German viewpoint, 230 

two schools, 107 
special legal status of, 2 
State, 52 

as storehouses of heavy timber, xv 

checkered history of, 10 

permanent, 7 
tax exemption on, 6 
the core of publicly owned, 9 

Normandy, 22 

role of, 17 

value of, 17 
three notable, 323 
Vosges, 34, 220 
France, private forestry in, 315 

proper, divided into thirty-two conser- 
vations, 273 
saved by her forests, xiv 
stumpage prices in, 309 
French cooperation, effectiveness of, 356 
engineers, operations of, 153 
forestry, German comment on, 469 

impressions of, 1 

public phases of, 2 
forest literature, 448 
forests and forestry, xxvi 
forests, boundaries of all, 292 
government, early negotiations with, 
352 

interest rates paid by, 317 

selection forests, 230 
instructions, 236 
Jura mountains, 84 
lumber grades, 310 
mensuration, 206 

national forest administration, 261 
officials, ix 

planting technique, 127 
policy, 65, 114 
regulation policy, broad aims of, 215 



French sUvics of aleppo pine, 407 
beech, 390 
cork oak, 395 
European larch, 404 
holm oak, 394 
hornbeam, 393 
maritime pine, 401 
Norway spruce, 402 
pedunculate oak, 387 
Scotch pine, 400 
sessile oak, 389 
silver fir, 397 
silviculture, 90 
State forest roads, 291 
system of planting, 129 
terms and American equivalents, 224 
views, an insight into, 17 
working plan, 243 
Fron, 119 

Frost, forest cover prevents, 20 
Frosts, spring, 80 
Fuel, classification of, 300 

supply service, special, 347 
Fungus, root, 205 

Galmiche, inspecteur, 95 
Game, charge for shooting, 326 

fence to prevent damage from, 75 
Gard and Herault, sowing in the, 137 
Garnissage, 162 
Gazin, 96 

Gerardmer, fir sawtimber stumpage prices, 
State forest of, 313 

forest of, 80, 243 

region, hardwood cord wood stumpage 
prices, 314 
German comment on French forestry, 469 
Gets, communal forest of, 39 
Gironde, maritime pine, 57 

sand wastes of the Landes and, 169 

zone, 30 
Glacial deposits, 149 
Gneiss, slopes formed by, 149 
Government, administrative departments, 
29 

regulation and working plans, 206 

representative, 29 
Grande Chartreuse, forest of, 89 
Granites, slopes formed by, 149 
Graphics, stand, what they represent, 214, 
215 



INDEX 



543 



Grazing betterment, the work of, 144 

disastrous to artificial forestation, 173 

forbidden, 91 

grounds, reservation of, 143 

law of 1882, 144 

regulation of, 142 

trespass, prevent, 203 
Ground, when to cultivate, 91 
Group selection for larch, 89 
Groups, working, 191 

working, essential, 215 

small working, 226 
Gurnaud, 107 

method, 241, 242 

Hailstorms, 21 

Hardwood cordwood, stumpage prices for, 
314 

fuel production of, 14 
Haute-Dauphine, forest of, 37 

-Jura, 32 

-Loire, stands in the, 137 

-Marne, broadleaves, 56 

-Savoie, 36 
Henry, list of forests by, xxiii 
Herault and Gard, departments of the, 144 
Hez-Froidemont, State forest of, 58 
High forest, 54-57, 93 
High forests, selection, 233 
Highway's, French, value of, 346 
Hole-selection method, 88 
Hornbeam, 41, 393 
Huff el, 21, 36, 60, 70, 94, 98, 100, 361 
Huit, the forest of, 102 
Humidity and rainfall, 21 

Implements, 69, 127 

Improvement cuttings, 104, 105, 189 

fellings. 111 
Indo-China, special laws for, 261 
Industries, development of machinery, 27 
Influence of forests, 323, 373 
Institutional forests, xvi 
Interest rates paid by the French govern- 
ment, 317 
Intermediate fellings, 113 
Inundation of 1840, 142 
Inventory, a sample, 237 
Isere, basin of, 36 

Jacquot, 381 



Jolyet, 42, 94, 105, 109 
Jura, forests of the, 308 
zone, 31 

La Blanche forestation area, 424 
Lacanau (Gironde) State forest, 188 
Lafond, 180 

La Gardiole, forest of, 126 
Land, ar cable, 130, 131 
barren, 131 
bog and swamp, 131 
brush and pasture, 131 
exempt from taxation, 317 
idle, America's problem, 16 
in the United States forests, 45 
mountain, reserved from use, 268 
ownerships of, 173 
reclaimed, cost of, 168 
Landes and dunes, 262 

and Gironde, sand wastes of the, 169 
area, 170 

drainage of, cost, 170 
forestry in the, 169 
local conditions, 172 
maritime pine, 57 
special betterments in the, 183 
Lands, forestation of communal, 7 

mountain, how governed, 263 
Laporte, conservateur, 88 
Larch, a light-demanding species, 83 
and cembric pine, 33 
European, 404 

forests of the Briangonnais, 36 
group selection for, and other methods. 

89 
habitat, 41 
pure, 90 

where sown, 165 
La Teste, forest of, 188, 193 
Law of 1846, 142 
1858, 142 
1860, 142 
1864, 142 
1876, 142 
1882, 143 

June 10, 1857, 263 
June 18, 1859 (Guyot), 262 
July 28, 1860, 263 
April 4, 1882, 263 
August 19, 1893, 283 
violations of the, 5 



544 



INDEX 



Laws dealing with forest fires, 4 
Leaf litter, 69 
L'Esterel, forest of, 233 

topography of, 284 
Legislation against deforestation, 316 

abuses led to, 221 

reference to, 268 

summary of, 142, 261 
Levier, statistics for, 62 
Light burning never permitted, 284 
Logging and cutting rules, 297 

equipment and sawmills, 343 

railways, 346 
Loire river valley, 12 

watershed, 18 
Long-term sale, example of, 301 
Lozere, Aveyron, and Correze, sowing in 

the, 137 
Lumbering, strategy in military, 342 
Lumber grades, French, 310 

manufacture, 15 

shortage, handicap of, 16 

prices paid for manufactured, 304 

transportation of, 342 

winning the war wi^, 349 
Lumberjacks as road builders, 339 
Lumberjack units, the organization of, 
339 

Malmifait, forest of, working plan, 105, 

112 
Management, areas and systems of, 316 
divisions, 225 
objects of, 186 
statistics, 54 
subdivisions, 225 
Manufactured lumber, prices paid for, 304 
Maps issued for each State forest, 293 
Maram grass, sand planted to, 178 
Maritime pine, clear cutting of, 72 
during improvement felling, 194 
forests, management of, 186 
forests, working plan for, 192 
method of sowing, 182 
shelterwood for, 78 
yield of, 202 
Martin, Doctor, of Tharandt, xiii 
Mathieu, investigations by, at Nancy, 19 
Maures and I'Esterel, 261, 262 
Measure, units of, xvii, 207 
units of, American, 48 



Mensuration in working plans, 206 
Meter, legal cubic, 207 
Method, hole-selection, 88 

rule-of-thumb, 211 
Methods used to stop erosion, 165 
Military rank, 274 
Mill cuts, daily and monthly, 349 
Minor products, 277, 278 
Montargis, forest of, conservation in the, 

102 
Mont-de-Marsan inspection, 202, 203 
Mont Dore (Puy-de-D6me), 151 
Mont-Genevre, forest of, 36 
Motor trucks and caterpillars, 346 
Moudon, forest of, 379 
Mountain floods, efforts to check, 8 

lands, 263 

pine, where sown, 165 
Mountains, control of erosion in, 140 

divided into zones, 31 

Names of reserves, 95 
Nancy forest school, 66, 95 
Natural regeneration, 65 

vegetation, 148 
Noiremont (Jura), fir forest of, 81 
Nurseries at high altitudes, 123 

fixed local, 122 

flying, 122 

location of, 122 

permanent or central, 122 

two sample, 124 
Nursery practice, 123 

Oak and beech forests, well-managed, 14 
-beech stands in northeast of France, 
98 

shelterwood for, 76 
clear cutting, 71 
cork, 41, 395 
holm, 41, 394 
management of, 469 
official price for, 311 
pedunculate, 40, 387 
sessile, 40, 389 

coppice of, 92 
shelterwood cuttings in, 73 
standards, space for, 95 
sprouting longevity, 92 
volume of, 331 
Oaks, the timber, 40 



INDEX 



545 



Officers, thanks of author due to, ix, x 
number of, in each grade, 270 

Oise, broadleaves, 56 

Organization, early, 268 
modern, 272 
of Forest Engineers, 338 

Orne, broadleaves, 56 

Owners, private, unwilling to repair dam- 
ages, 267 

Palisade, how built, 179 

Parc-et-St. Quentin, forest of, 77 

Parde, L., 78, 79 

Parisian plateau, 76 

Parisienne zone, 30 

Paving channels, 162 

Pay for subordinate force, 272 

Penal code, 3 

Periodic blocks, 240 

Physical and climatic features, 25 

Pine, aleppo, 41, 407 

maritime, 41, 401 

maritime, method of sowing, 178 

Scotch, 41, 400 
Pitwood, average market price of, 312 
Plains, zones, 30 
Plans, management, 215 
Plants, age of, 126 
Plantations in holes (or spots), 127 
Planting, 116 

ball, 128 

bush or clump method, 128 

choice between sowing and, 115 

cultivation and spacing, 125 

methods, 167 

so-called basket method, 128 

the great aim of, 125 
Plants used in reforestation, 408 
Plateau of Bourgogne, 76 

Lorraine, 76 
Policy, French, 65 

Nancy school, 66 
Pontarlier, sale at, 297 
Port of Clamecy, 314 
Precipitation and erosion, 147 
Pressler borings, 256 
Pressler's increment borer, boring with, 

528 
Prevost, Marcel, of the French academy, 

XXV 

Price for commercial sales, average, 320 



Price for oak, official, 311 

of pitwood, average market, 312 
sawtimber, 307 
Prices, stumpage, 304 

timber, average local, 306 
Private forestry, conclusions, 334 
examples of the best, 323 
importance of, 13 
in France, 315 

forests as permanent investments, 333 
returns from, 14 

owner, restraining the, 316 

ownership, trend of, 315 
Production, amount of, 202 

annual, 46, 47 
Products, for military purposes, 28 

resinous, yield of, 202 
Property rights, infringement of, 5 
Protection, 275 

against rodents, heat, and wind, 136 

and cover, 129 

benches, 158 
Protective measures, 204 
Provengale zone, 30 
Pruning of branches on trunks, 300 

excessive, 278 

when started, 189 
Puy-de-Dome, seed spots in the, 137 
Pyrenees-Orientales, species, 55 
Pyrenees region, 428 

sowing in the, 138 

the forests of, 38 

zone, 34 

Railroads required to open fire lines, 283 
Rainfall absorbed, 148 

and humidity, 21 

annual, 26, 88 

where greatest, 141 

outside and inside the forest, 367 
Rains, damage from, 147 
Rambouillet, forest of, 79 
Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses-Alpes), 166 
Ravine de Roche Noire, 152 
Receipts and expenses. State forests, 203 
Reforestation areas, typical, 422 

artificial, 114 

expense, summary of, 146 

methods of, 165 

obligatory, 143 

plants used in, 387 



546 



INDEX 



Reforestation, policy and summary of, 
140 

shrubs used in, 387 

statistics of, 145 

trees used in, 387 

typical areas, 168 

work, summary of, 146 
Regeneration, assisting, cost, 79 

by natural means, 114 

care of stand after, 105 

difficulty in, 77 

natural, 65-67 - 

of spruce in Alpine forests, 83 

period, 76 
Regions, reforestation, 168 
Regulation, four essential kinds of, 224 

intensive, 229 

of cutting, 215 
Regulating the cut, method of, 232 
Reorganization of 1882, 269 
Reserves, history of, 222 

names of, 95 

policy of, 222 
Resin crops, 232 

operations, specifications covering, 
196 

price of crude, 186 

sales, clauses specified, 195 
examples, 195 

value of, 203 
Revenue, average forest, 184 
Rights of contractors, 299 
Risol, forest of, 81 
Road and bridge service, 176 

dune, 183 
Roads and trails, 290 

French State forest, 291 
Rock drains, 160 
Rodents, how killed, 132 
Root fungus, 205 
Rotation, 252 

coppice managed on short, 92 

length of, 78, 228 

method of 1883, 234 
Rotations and cutting cycles, 226 

financial, computing, 229, 230 

technical, 230 
Royal domains, 10 
Rule-of -thumb methods, 211 
Rules, cultural, 86, 187, 254 

for choice of standards, 96 



Rules for choice of calipering, 212 
reductions, standard, 207 

Salaries to forest officers, 271, 325 

Sale of felling areas, 445 

Sales and traffic department, 342 

on the stump, hardwood fuel, 311 

procedure, general, 293 

ratios between different methods, 307 

resin, 195 
Sample inventory, 237, 238 
Sand dunes, fixing shifting, 177, 429 

erosion, kinds of barriers against, 180 
Savoie conifers, 54, 55 

forests of the, 308 
Sawmill capacity and output, 350 

the flying, 344 
heavy, 344 
hght, 344 
Sawmills, American, operating during the 
war, 349 

and logging equipment, 343 

equipping the, 342 

installed during the war, 341 

kind of, 201 

the man behind the, 339 
Sawtimber, cutting, 201 

minimum diameter of, 307 

price of, 307 
Schaeffer, A., 38, 106, 214, 260 
Schists, mica and Paleozoic, slopes formed 

by, 149 
Scotch and aleppo pine, selection felling 
for, 87 

pine and spruce, planting of, 130 
shelterwood for, 78 
Secondary fellings, 74 
Seed, amount of, to sow, 133, 134 

control, rules for, 120 

cultural value of, 117 

dangers to sown or planted, 132 

felling, 73 

required for test, 118 

sown and planted, 117 

test, germination, 119 

testing, 118, 120 

value, average, 117 
Seeding, natural, 188 
Seeds, length of time to germinate, 116 
Seine, department of, 28 
Selection fellings, classic, 82 



INDEX 



547 



Selection, for Scotch and aleppo pme, 
87 
method, 68 

system in broadleaf stands, 82 
Service des Eaux et Forets, 40 
Servitudes and the use of minor products, 
' . 277 

Sessile and pedunculate oak, 40 
Shelterbelts for the fields, 115 
Shelterwood cuttings in oak, 73 

for beech, 76 
fir, 80 

and spruce in mixture, 82 
maritime pine, 78 
oak and beech, 76 
Scotch pine, 78 
spruce, 81 

systems, 68, 70, 75, 239 
Shipbuilding, iron first used for, 70 
Shooting and fishing, 262 

game, charge for, 326 
Shrubs, the best to use, 129 

used in reforestation, 408 
Silver fir stands, xiii 
Silvics of important forest species, 387 
Silvicultural operations, 72 

systems, 188 
Silviculture, poor, 94 
Snow damage, 282 
Soil conditions, 67, 130 

erosion, to prevent, 161 

forest, 67 

preparations, 68, 79 

prepared and unprepared, 132 

values, study of, 318 
Soils, depth and character of, 68 

which disintegrate, 148 
Sowing, 116 

and planting, choice between, 115 

chief species, 135 

continuous or broken strips, 132 

cost of, 138 

field, 132 

may be broadcasted, 132 

methods, summary of, 135 

on unprepared soil, 133 

season for, 135 

seed-spot method, 129 

short-cut methods, 133 

stick method of, 167 

time of, and amount of seed used in, 136 



Sowing, without soil preparation, 133 
Species and method to use, 130 

calipered by compartments, 256 

data, forest areas and, 50 

exotic, 43 

important, 25, 34, 40 

in I'Esterel forest, 285 

light-demanding, 81, 107 

most important timber, 106 

on an ideal plantation, 130 

planted to correct erosion, 157 

principal, xxi 

qualities of, 97 

quantity of seed to sow, 134 

shade-enduring, 107 

tapping other, 194 
Specifications, utilization, logging, and 

local, 201 
Springs, action of forests on, 363 

and their origin, 361 

French and Russian experiments, 22 

in the forest, 22 
Spruce a light-demanding species, 81, 86 

and fir in mixture, shelterwood for, 82 
Scotch pine, planting of, 130 

cones, 81 

forest, thinned and unthinned. 111 

natiu-al regeneration of, 85 

Norway, 41, 402 

or fir, group selection for, 89 

pole stand of, 109 

regeneration of, in Alpine forests, 83 

selection fellings, 84 

shelterwood for, 81 

stand in Savoie, study of, by Thiollier, 86 

strip felhngs, 72 

suppressed, 103 
Standard of timber analyzed, 302 
Standards, 234 

rules for choice of, 96 

IR, 2R, 3R, 95 
Stand graphics, 214, 216, 217 
Stands, calipering, 211 

ruined through careless selection, 95 

the most notable, 33 

young, cleaning and freeing, 106 
State forest of Amance, 101 

Ban d'fitival fir stumpage prices, 

313 
Gerardmer fir stumpage prices, 313 
Trongais oak stumpage prices, 313 



548 



INDEX 



State forest, maps issued for each, 292 

relations, 190 
State forests, xiv, 52 

expense for the management of, 60 
Statistical data, forest, 45 
Statistics, 176 

acres reforested, 145 
purchased, 145 

analysis of general, 52 

for Levier, 62 

management, 54 

of State and communal forests, 321 

on private forests, 409 
public forests, 409 
St. Antoine, forest of, 91 

Martin d'Arc, forest of, 87 

Paul, forest of, 165 
Stock, transplanted and untransplanted, 

125 
Stumpage prices, 304, 309, 310 

rates on timber, 308 

values, 12 
Summary and forecast, financial, 255 
Systems, coppice, 92 
System, selection, in broadleaf stands, 82 

shelterwood, 239 

Tables, volume, 208 
Tannin bark, 92 
Tapping, effect of, 200 

frequency of, 200 

maritime pine, specifications for, 429 

methods contrasted, French and Ameri- 
can, 199 

operations, 200 

other species, 194 

period, reduction in length of, 193 

rules for, 433 

scheme, new, 193 

so-called exhaustive, 190 

technique of, 199 

tools for, French, 196 

width and height of faces, 193 
Tassey, 92, 269 
Taxation, lands exempt from, 317 

French forest, 267 
Technique of tapping, 199 
Temperature, average, 173 

difference in, 20 

in forests, effect on, 19 

of the trees and surrounding air, 368 



Testing seed, 118 

Thalweg, collecting basin, 151 

Thinnings and cleanings, 71 

are profitable, 111 

by tapping alive, how conducted, 189 

efficient, 229 

regular, 189 

three main objects, 108 
Thiollier, study of spruce stand in Savoie 

by, 86 
Thones-Ville, communal forest of, 109 
Tignes, communal forest of, 90 
Timber acquired by timberland depart- 
ment, 343 

amount of, at beginning of war, 337 

analyzed, standard of, 302 

average local prices, 306 

best, in private hands, 187 

committee, the interallied, 352 

different sized, xviii 

estimating a fair price for, 294 

general rules, sale of, 297 

how sold, 293 

in modern warfare, 336 

private clearing of, 263 
requisition for, 268 

restrictions upon the amount cut, 354 

sale of, 293, 303 
regulations, 438 

scouting France for, 353 

shortage of home-grown, 1 

supplies, French organization of, 351 

stumpage rates on, 308 

three main methods of selling, 295 

warfare, heavy and light artillery in, 345 
Timberland department, timber acquired 

by, 343 
Tools, barrasquit d'espourga, 196 

French turpentine, 196, 197 

hapchot (bridon), 198 

palette (or palinette), 198 

place-crampon (pousse-crampon), 198 

rasclet, 198 
Topography of I'Esterel forest, 284 
Torrent, control of, 168 

definition of a, 149 

gorges, formation of, 150 

how controlled, 156 

of St. Julien, corrective measures, 156 
Torrents, 164 

causes of, 151 



INDEX 



549 



Torrents, damage caused by, 152 

losses from, 153 

where formed, 150 
Trails and roads, 290 
Transformation cuttings, 103, 104 
Transportation, a war of, 337 

equipment, 348 
Transport problem, 345 
Treatment, method of, xxi 
Tree growth, to obtain the real, 241 

planting, roadside, 115 
Trees for each diameter class, number of, 
99 

how estimated by the A. E. F., 212, 213 

used in reforestation, 407 

market for, 301 

reserved (standards), 96 

time to plant, 126 
Trespass, grazing, prevent, 203 

regulations against, 204 
Trongais, oak saw timber, State forest of, 

313 
Tunnels and aqueducts, 162 
Turpentine, barrel price, 185 

permit, sample, 435 

tools, French, 197 
Type of forest, 99 

Ubaye, basin of, 165 
Units of measure, 207 
American, 48 

Valuation of growing stock, 531 

surveys, by Dunning, 212 
Vegetable cover, 68 
Vegetation, natural, 148 
Verdon-Superieur area, 163 
Villarodin-Bourget, forest of, 85 
Volume of average wood, 235 
old wood, 235 

tables, 208, 209, 210, 212 

yield by, 63 
Vonne, broadleaves, 57 
Vosges, conifers, 54 

forests, 34, 220, 308 

mountains, 12 

zone, 31 

Walls, protection, how built, 158 
retaining, on a hillside, 159 



Walls, snow, to turn snow slides, 160 

to prevent avalanches, 159 
War of transportation, a, 337 

zone, forest acquisitions in the, 352 
Water level, lower in forests, 21 

power, 28 
Waters and Forests Service, xix, 176, 268, 

351 
Wattle work, 155, 156, 162 
purpose of, 164 
ravine stabilized by, 163 
Weeds, cutting in clearance, 106 
Windfall damage, 280 

yields by, 80 
Wind, shelterbelts against, 20 
Winds, prevaihng, 26 
Wood, amount of, to cut, 11 
average volume of, 235 
fuel, cut by forest engineers, 347 
production of, 347 
special service, 348 
need of, reduced, 19 
old, average, young, 234 

volume of, 235 
products, specifications of, 201 
shortage and high cost, 16 
used by two million American soldiers 

337 
yield during twenty years, 251, 252 
Woodsmen, American, in Jrance, 358 
Working groups, 102 

cultural rules for, 187 
method of management, 191 
protection, 187 
small, 226 

sustained yield for, 215 
Working plan, application of the, 250 
Chamonix, 248 
data, original, 500 
description, new methods of, Schaeffer, 

244 
discussion of, 244 
features of, 253 
flaws in, 260 
for a maritime pine forest, 192 

State forest of Carcans, 72 
Malmifait, 105 
of the forest of Malmifait, 77 
report, outline, 247 
scenic, the, 91 
Working plans, 215, 243, 253 



550 



INDEX 



Working plans, applicable to the United 
States, 219 

difference between State and com- 
munal forest. 243, 244 

Government regulation, 206 

mensuration in, 206 

Schaefifer's simple rule, 244, 245 

theoretical need of, 219 



Yield, aUotting the, 254 
by volume, 63 
determination of, 253 
relative, of timber and fuel, 93 
regulation, Gurnaud method of, 241 

Yields by windfaU, 80 

Zones, moimtains, 31 






^^.^ 



' ^^ 






■><> 




V 



ci- 







> ^0 






'>t 







x^-^^ 



0' 



'^^. 



V ^ '' * /■ ^ ,0^ s ^ ' * ' /^ ^ 




.^^-^ 







r^ it 



N 



V> ^ ^ * « A 












:'^/ > 



•>^. 



v^' . 



^ " " / '';;. 



I, -i^-^ 






. \. ■> 






















A^ 






: .^%. ' 




%^^^ 



4> '^'P 



.;-^° 









^^.^ 






C' 













*. 9: 



.^■ 



X^ 



-■•i*' 






^^•r^ 















o4 °- 






.-v'v-' 



r-' 














<?• 



•3 ■ - * ^ 






.^^^^r 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

018 452 628 1 






r^i'v^liiil^l^iSi 






III 



';ii!v,'V5.::'.:v,-:';v&lvS? 






















